Federal Register, Volume 78 Issue 208 (Monday, October 28, 2013)

[Federal Register Volume 78, Number 208 (Monday, October 28, 2013)]
[Proposed Rules]
[Pages 64357-64384]
From the Federal Register Online via the Government Printing Office [www.gpo.gov]
[FR Doc No: 2013-24307]

[[Page 64357]]

Vol. 78

Monday,

No. 208

October 28, 2013

Part IV

Department of the Interior

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Fish and Wildlife Service

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

50 CFR Part 17

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Status for
the Bi-State Distinct Population Segment of Greater Sage-Grouse With
Special Rule; Proposed Rule

Federal Register / Vol. 78 , No. 208 / Monday, October 28, 2013 /
Proposed Rules

[[Page 64358]]

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072; 4500030113]
RIN 1018-AY10

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Threatened Status
for the Bi-State Distinct Population Segment of Greater Sage-Grouse
With Special Rule

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Proposed rule.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------

SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to
list the Bi-State distinct population segment (DPS) of greater sage-
grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus) as threatened under the Endangered
Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). We also propose a special rule
under section 4(d) of the Act to provide for the conservation of the
Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse. If finalized, the effect of this
regulation would be to add the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse to
the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, extend the Act's
protections to this DPS, and establish a 4(d) special rule for the
conservation of this DPS. Elsewhere in today's Federal Register, we
propose to designate critical habitat under the Act for the Bi-State
DPS of greater sage-grouse.

DATES: Comment Submission: We will accept comments received or
postmarked on or before December 27, 2013. Comments submitted
electronically using the Federal eRulemaking Portal (see ADDRESSES
section, below) must be received by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the
closing date. We must receive requests for public hearings, in writing,
at the address shown in FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT by December 12,
2013.
Public Meetings: Two public meetings will be held on this proposed
rule: (1) November 5, 2013, from 4:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. (Pacific Time);
and (2) November 6, 2013, from 1:00 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. (Pacific Time).
People needing reasonable accommodations in order to attend and
participate in the public hearing should contact Jeannie Stafford,
Nevada Fish and Wildlife Office, as soon as possible (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).

ADDRESSES: Comment Submission: You may submit comments by one of the
following methods:
(1) Electronically: Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal:
http://www.regulations.gov. In the Search box, enter FWS-R8-ES-
2013-0072, which is the docket number for this rulemaking. Then, in the
Search panel on the left side of the screen, under the Document Type
heading, click on the Proposed Rules link to locate this document. You
may submit a comment by clicking on ``Comment Now!''
(2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public
Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072; Division of Policy and
Directives Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax
Drive, MS 2042-PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.
We request that you send comments only by the methods described
above. We will post all comments on http://www.regulations.gov. This
generally means that we will post any personal information you provide
us (see the Information Requested section below for more information).
Public Meetings: The November 5, 2013, public meeting will be held
at the Tri-County Fairgrounds, Home Economics Room, Sierra Street and
Fair Drive, Bishop, CA 93514. The November 6, 2013, public meeting will
be held at the Smith Valley Community Center, 2783 State Route 208,
Wellington, NV 89444.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: For general information on the
proposed listing and information about the proposed listing specific to
Nevada (Carson City, Douglas, Esmeralda, Lyon, and Mineral Counties),
contact Edward D. Koch, State Supervisor, Nevada Fish and Wildlife
Office, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1340 Financial Boulevard, Suite
234, Reno, NV 89502; telephone 775-861-6300; facsimile 775-861-6301.
For specific information related to California (Alpine, Inyo, and Mono
Counties), contact Diane Noda, Field Supervisor, or Carl Benz,
Assistant Field Supervisor, Ventura Fish and Wildlife Office, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, 2493 Portola Road, Suite B, Ventura, CA 93003;
telephone 805-644-1766; facsimile 805-644-3958. Persons who use a
telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal
Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Executive Summary

Why we need to publish a rule. Under the Act, if a species is
determined to be an endangered or threatened species throughout all or
a significant portion of its range, we are required to promptly publish
a proposal in the Federal Register and make a determination on our
proposal within 1 year. Listing a species as an endangered or
threatened species can only be completed by issuing a rule.
This rule proposes the listing of the Bi-State distinct population
segment (DPS) of greater sage-grouse as a threatened species. The Bi-
State DPS is a candidate species for which we have on file sufficient
information on biological vulnerability and threats to support
preparation of a listing proposal, but for which development of a
listing regulation had been precluded by other higher priority listing
activities. This rule reassesses all available information regarding
the status of and threats to the Bi-State DPS. This rule also proposed
a special rule under section 4(d) of the Act to provide for the
conservation of the Bi-State DPS. Elsewhere in today's Federal
Register, we propose to designate critical habitat for the Bi-State DPS
under the Act.
The basis for our action. Under the Act, we can determine that a
species is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five
factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for
commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C)
Disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its
continued existence. We have determined that threats that pose the most
significant impacts to the Bi-State DPS currently and in the future are
nonnative and native, invasive species (Factors A and E); wildfires and
altered fire regime (Factors A and E); infrastructure (Factors A and
E); grazing (Factors A, C, and E); and small population size and
population structure (Factor E). Other threats that are impacting the
Bi-State DPS to a lesser degree are urbanization and habitat conversion
(Factor A); mining (Factors A and E); renewable energy development and
associated infrastructure (Factors A and E); disease and predation
(Factor B); climate change, including drought (Factors A and E); and
recreation (Factors A and E). The existing regulatory mechanisms are
inadequate to protect the Bi-State DPS from these threats (Factor D).
The threats listed above are also acting cumulatively to further
contribute to the challenges faced by several Bi-State DPS populations
now and into the future.
We are proposing a special rule. We are proposing to exempt from
the Act's take prohibitions (at section 9) activities conducted
pursuant to a comprehensive

[[Page 64359]]

conservation program that was developed by or in coordination with a
State agency. Specifically, the proposed 4(d) special rule provides
that any take of the Bi-State DPS incidental to agricultural activities
is not a prohibited action under the Act if the activities are: (1)
Included within either of two comprehensive conservation programs: the
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) for private agricultural
lands in connection with NRCS's Sage Grouse Initiative (SGI), or the
Bi-State Local Area Working Group Action Plan; or (2) managed not by a
formal SGI participant but are consistent with the SGI. If an activity
resulting in take of the Bi-State DPS is prohibited under this 4(d)
special rule, then the general prohibitions at 50 CFR 17.31 for
threatened wildlife would apply, and we would require a permit pursuant
to section 10 of the Act for such an activity, as specified in our
regulations. Nothing in this proposed 4(d) special rule would affect
the consultation requirements under section 7 of the Act. The intent of
this special rule would be to increase support for the conservation of
the Bi-State DPS and provide an incentive for continued management
activities that benefit the Bi-State DPS and its habitat.
We will seek peer review. We are seeking comments from
knowledgeable individuals with scientific expertise to review our
analysis of the best available science and application of that science
and to provide any additional scientific information to improve this
proposed rule. Because we will consider all comments and information we
receive during the comment period, our final determination may differ
from this proposal.

Information Requested

Public Comments

We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule
will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and
be as accurate and as effective as possible. Additionally, we intend to
make a final determination on the 4(d) special rule concurrent with the
final listing rule, if the result of our final listing determination
concludes that threatened species status is appropriate. Therefore, we
request comments or information from other concerned governmental
agencies, Native American tribes, the scientific community, industry,
or any other interested parties concerning this proposed listing rule
and 4(d) special rule. We particularly seek comments concerning:
(1) The Bi-State DPS's biology, distribution, population size and
trend, including:
(a) Habitat requirements for feeding, breeding, and sheltering;
(b) Genetics and taxonomy;
(c) Historical and current range, including distribution patterns;
(d) Historical and current population levels, and current and
projected trends; and
(e) Past and ongoing conservation measures for the DPS, its
habitat, or both.
(2) The factors that are the basis for making a listing
determination for a species under section 4(a) of the Act (16 U.S.C.
1531 et seq.), which are:
(a) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range;
(b) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes;
(c) Disease or predation;
(d) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or
(e) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued
existence.
(3) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning
any threats (or lack thereof) to this DPS and existing regulations that
may be addressing those threats.
(4) Additional information concerning the historical and current
status, range, distribution, and population size of this species,
including the locations of any additional leks or populations of this
DPS.
(5) Any information on the biological or ecological requirements of
the DPS, and ongoing conservation measures for the DPS and its habitat.
(6) Application of the Bi-State Action Plan of March 15, 2012, to
our determination of status under section 4(a)(1) of the Act,
particularly comments or information to help us assess the certainty
that the plan will be effective in conserving the Bi-State DPS of
greater sage-grouse and will be implemented.
(7) Information concerning whether it would be appropriate to
include in the 4(d) special rule a provision for take of the Bi-State
DPS of greater sage-grouse in accordance with applicable State law for
educational or scientific purposes, the enhancement of propagation or
survival of the DPS, zoological exhibition, and other conservation
purposes consistent with the Act.
(8) Whether the Service should include in the scope of the proposed
4(d) special rule the incidental take of sage-grouse within the Bi-
State DPS if the take results from other agricultural activities not
subject to the SGI or the Bi-state Action Plan, if those activities are
compatible with the conservation of the DPS.
(9) Whether the Service should expand the scope of this 4(d)
special rule to allow incidental take of sage-grouse within the Bi-
State DPS if the take results from implementation of the SGI or Bi-
State Action Plan by a person or entity other than a State agency or
their agent(s).
Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as
scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Please note that submissions merely stating support for or
opposition to the action under consideration without providing
supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in
making a determination, as section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that
determinations as to whether any species is a threatened or endangered
species must be made ``solely on the basis of the best scientific and
commercial data available.''
You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed
rule by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section. We request
that you send comments only by the methods described in the ADDRESSES
section.
If you submit information via http://www.regulations.gov, your
entire submission--including any personal identifying information--will
be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy
that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the
top of your document that we withhold this information from public
review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We
will post all hardcopy submissions on http://www.regulations.gov.
Please include sufficient information with your comments to allow us to
verify any scientific or commercial information you include.
Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting
documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be
available for public inspection on http://www.regulations.gov, or by
appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Nevada Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).

Public Hearing

Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for one or more public hearings
on this proposal, if requested. Requests must be received within 45
days after the date of publication of this proposed rule in the Federal
Register. Such requests must be sent to the address shown in the FOR

[[Page 64360]]

FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT section. We will schedule public hearings
on this proposal, if any are requested, and announce the dates, times,
and places of those hearings, as well as how to obtain reasonable
accommodations, in the Federal Register and local newspapers at least
15 days before the hearing.

Peer Review

In accordance with our joint policy on peer review published in the
Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), we have sought the
expert opinions of at least three appropriate and independent
specialists regarding this proposed rule. The purpose of peer review is
to ensure that our listing determination section 4(d) special rule are
based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analyses. The peer
reviewers have expertise in the Bi-State DPS' (and the greater sage-
grouse in general) life-history requirements, ecology, and habitat
needs. We invite comment from the peer reviewers during this public
comment period.

Previous Federal Actions

On January 2, 2002, we received a petition from the Institute for
Wildlife Protection requesting that the sage-grouse occurring in the
Mono Basin area of California and Nevada be emergency listed as an
endangered DPS of Centrocercus urophasianus phaios, which the
petitioner considered to be the western subspecies of the greater sage-
grouse. This request concerned the sage-grouse in portions of Alpine
and Inyo Counties and most of Mono County in California, and portions
of Carson City, Douglas, Esmeralda, Lyon, and Mineral Counties in
Nevada. On December 26, 2002, we published a 90-day finding that the
petition did not present substantial scientific or commercial
information indicating that the petitioned action may be warranted (67
FR 78811). Our 2002 finding concluded: (1) That the petition did not
present substantial information indicating that the population of
greater sage-grouse in this area was recognizable as a DPS under our
DPS policy (61 FR 4722; February 7, 1996), and thus was not a listable
entity (67 FR 78811; December 26, 2002); and (2) that the petition did
not present substantial information regarding threats to indicate that
listing the petitioned population may be warranted (67 FR 78811).
On November 15, 2005, we received a petition submitted by the
Stanford Law School Environmental Law Clinic on behalf of the Sagebrush
Sea Campaign, Western Watersheds Project, Center for Biological
Diversity, and Christians Caring for Creation to list the Mono Basin
area population of greater sage-grouse (referred to as the Bi-State DPS
in this document) as an endangered or threatened DPS of the greater
sage-grouse (C. urophasianus) under the Act. On March 28, 2006, we
responded that emergency listing was not warranted and, due to court
orders and settlement agreements for other listing actions, we would
not be able to address the petition at that time.
On November 18, 2005, the Institute for Wildlife Protection and Dr.
Steven G. Herman filed suit against the Service in U.S. District Court
for the Western District of Washington (Institute for Wildlife
Protection et al. v. Norton et al., No. C05-1939 RSM), challenging the
Service's 90-day finding (67 FR 78811; December 26, 2002) that the
Institute for Wildlife Protection's January 2002 petition did not
present substantial information indicating that the petitioned action
may be warranted. On April 11, 2006, we reached a stipulated settlement
agreement with both plaintiffs under which we agreed to evaluate the
November 2005 petition and concurrently reevaluate the January 2002
petition. The settlement agreement required the Service to submit to
the Federal Register a 90-day finding by December 8, 2006, and if we
found the petition to be substantial, to complete the 12-month finding
by December 10, 2007. On December 19, 2006, we published a 90-day
finding that these petitions did not present substantial scientific or
commercial information indicating that the petitioned actions may be
warranted (71 FR 76058).
On August 23, 2007, the November 2005 petitioners filed a complaint
challenging the Service's 2006 finding. After review of the complaint,
the Service determined that we would revisit our 2006 finding. The
Service entered into a settlement agreement with the petitioners on
February 25, 2008, in which the Service agreed to a voluntary remand of
the 2006 petition finding, and agreed to submit for publication in the
Federal Register a new 90-day finding by April 25, 2008. The agreement
further stipulated that if upon reevaluation the Service made a finding
that the petitions presented substantial information, the Service would
undertake a status review of the Mono Basin area population of the
greater sage-grouse and submit for publication in the Federal Register
a 12-month finding by April 24, 2009.
On April 29, 2008, we published in the Federal Register (73 FR
23173) a 90-day petition finding that the petitions presented
substantial scientific or commercial information indicating that
listing the Mono Basin area population may be warranted and that
initiated a status review. A joint stipulation by the Service and the
plaintiffs agreed to extend the due date for the 12-month finding. On
May 27, 2009, the U.S. District Court, Northern District of California,
issued an order accepting a joint stipulation between the Service and
the plaintiffs, where the parties agreed that the Service may submit to
the Federal Register a single document containing the 12-month findings
for the Mono Basin area population and the greater sage-grouse no later
than by February 26, 2010. The due date for submission of the document
to the Federal Register was extended to March 5, 2010, and the document
was subsequently published on March 23, 2010 (75 FR 13910). In this
document, we concluded, among other things, that the Mono Basin area
population is a listable entity under Service policy as a DPS and that
the DPS warranted recognition under the Act but that immediate action
was precluded by higher listing priorities. This warranted-but-
precluded finding placed the species on our candidate list.
Both the 2002 and 2005 petitions, as well as our 2002 and 2006
findings, use the term ``Mono Basin area'' and ``Mono Basin
population'' to refer to greater sage-grouse that occur within the
geographic area of eastern California and western Nevada that includes
Mono Lake. For conservation planning purposes, this same geographic
area is referred to as the Bi-State area by the States of California
and Nevada (Bi State Local Planning Group 2004, pp. 4-5). For
consistency with ongoing planning efforts, we adopted the ``Bi-State''
nomenclature in our 2010 finding and consequently refer to this DPS as
the ``Bi-State DPS'' within this document.

[[Page 64361]]

On May 10, 2011, we filed a multiyear work plan as part of a
proposed settlement agreement with Wild Earth Guardians and others in a
consolidated case in the U.S. District Court for the District of
Columbia. On September 9, 2011, the Court accepted our agreement with
the plaintiffs in Endangered Species Act Section 4 Deadline Litig.,
Misc. Action No. 10-377 (EGS), MDL Docket No. 2165 (D. DC) (known as
the ``MDL case'') on a schedule to publish proposed rules or not-
warranted findings for the 251 species designated as candidates as of
2010 no later than September 30, 2016. The publication of this proposed
rule complies with our current work plan.
Elsewhere in today's Federal Register, we propose to designate
critical habitat for the Bi-State DPS under the Act.

Background

In our 12-month finding on petitions to list three entities of
sage-grouse (75 FR 13910; March 23, 2010), we found that the Bi-State
population of sage-grouse meets our criteria as a DPS of the sage-
grouse under Service policy (61 FR 4722; February 7, 1996), and we
reaffirm that this finding is still valid. This determination was based
principally on genetic information (Benedict et al. 2003, p. 308;
Oyler-McCance et al. 2005, p. 1,307), where the DPS was found to be
both markedly separated and significant to the remainder of the sage-
grouse taxon. The Bi-State DPS defines the far southwest limit of the
species' range along the border of eastern California and western
Nevada (Stiver et al. 2006, pp. 1-11; 71 FR 76058).
Although the Bi-State DPS is a genetically unique and markedly
separated population from the rest of the greater sage-grouse's range,
the DPS has similar life-history and habitat requirements. In this
proposed rule, we use information specific to the Bi-State DPS where
available but still apply scientific management principles for greater
sage-grouse that are relevant to the Bi-State DPS's management needs
and strategies, which is a practice followed by the wildlife and land
management agencies that have responsibility for management of both the
DPS and its habitat.
A detailed discussion of the Bi-State DPS's description, taxonomy,
habitat (sagebrush ecosystem), seasonal habitat selection, life-history
characteristics, home range, life expectancy and survival rates,
historical and current range distribution, population estimates and lek
(sage-grouse breeding complex) counts, population trends, and land
ownership information is available in the 2013 Species Report (Service
2013a, entire). A team of Service biologists prepared this status
review for the Bi-State DPS. The team included biologists from the
Service's Nevada Fish and Wildlife Office, Ventura Fish and Wildlife
Office, Pacific Southwest Regional Office, Mountain-Prairie Regional
Office, and national Headquarters Office. The Species Report represents
a compilation of the best scientific and commercial data available
concerning the status of the Bi-State DPS, including the past, present,
and future threats to this DPS. The Species Report and other materials
relating to this proposal (e.g., references cited, maps, management
documents) can be found at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket No.
FWS-R8-ES-2013-0072, the Pacific Southwest Regional Office Web site
(http://www.fws.gov/cno/), and two Fish and Wildlife Office Web sites
(http://www.fws.gov/nevada/ and http://www.fws.gov/ventura/).

Species Information

As stated above, the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse is
genetically unique and markedly separated from the rest of the species'
range. The species as a whole is long-lived, reliant on sagebrush,
highly traditional in areas of seasonal habitat use, and particularly
susceptible to habitat fragmentation and alterations in its environment
(see the ``Seasonal Habitat Selection and Life History
Characteristics'' section of the Species Report (Service 2013a, pp. 10-
14)). Sage-grouse annually exploit numerous habitat types in the
sagebrush ecosystem across broad landscapes to successfully complete
their life cycle, thus spanning ecological and political boundaries.
Populations are slow-growing due to low reproductive rates (Schroeder
et al. 1999 pp. 11, 14; Connelly et al. 2000a, pp. 969-970), and they
exhibit natural, cyclical variability in abundance (see ``Current
Range/Distribution and Population Estimates/Annual Lek Counts'' section
of the Species Report (Service 2013a, pp. 17-29)).
For the purposes of this proposed rule, we discuss the Bi-State DPS
populations, threats to those populations, and associated management
needs or conservation actions as they relate to population management
units (PMUs). Six PMUs were established in 2001 as management tools for
defining and monitoring sage-grouse distribution in the Bi-State area
(Sage-Grouse Conservation Planning Team 2001, p. 31). The PMU
boundaries are based on aggregations of leks, known seasonal habitats,
and telemetry data, which represent generalized subpopulations or local
breeding complexes. The six PMUs include: Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales,
Bodie, Mount Grant, South Mono, and White Mountains PMUs. These six
PMUs represent a total of four to eight demographically independent
populations with a combined total of approximately 43 active leks (see
Table 1 below; Service 2013a, pp. 17-20). Leks are considered either
active (i.e., two or more strutting males during at least 2 years in a
5-year period), inactive (i.e., surveyed three or more times during one
breeding season with no birds detected and no sign (e.g., droppings)
observed), historical (i.e., no strutting activity for 20 years and
have been checked according to State protocol at least intermittently),
or unknown (i.e., sign was observed, and one or no strutting males
observed, or a lek that had activity the prior year but was surveyed
under unsuitable conditions during the current year and reported one or
no strutting males).

[[Page 64362]]

Table 1--Bi-State DPS Population Management Units (PMUs), PMU Size, Estimated Range in Population Size, Number
of Active Leks, and Reported Range in Total Males Counted on All Leks Within Each PMU
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total size Estimated population Current number Lek count (number of
PMU hectares size range (2002- of active leks males) range (2002-
(acres) * 2012) ** ** 2012) **
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Pine Nut.......................... 232,440 50-331............... 1 6-22
(574,373)
Desert Creek-Fales................ 229,858 317-1,268............ 8 30-190
(567,992)
Mount Grant....................... 282,907 85-1,412............. 8 12->140
(699,079)
Bodie............................. 141,490 522-2,400............ 13 124-510
(349,630)
South Mono........................ 234,508 859-2,005............ 11 204-426
(579,483)
White Mountains................... 709,768 Data not available... 2+ Data not available
(1,753,875)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Total (all PMUs combined)..... 1,830,972 1,833-7,416.......... 43 376-1,288
(4,524,432)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Bi-State Local Planning Group (2004, pp. 11, 32, 63, 102, 127, 153)
** CDFW (2012, unpublished data); NDOW (2012a, unpublished data).

Each sage-grouse population in the Bi-State area is relatively
small and below theoretical minimum criteria for long-term persistence,
as is the entire DPS on average, which is estimated at 1,833 to 7,416
individuals (formerly California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG),
now known as California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)) 2012,
unpublished data; Nevada Department of Wildlife (NDOW) 2012a,
unpublished data). The two largest populations exist in the Bodie
(Bodie Hills population) and South Mono (Long Valley population) PMUs.
The remaining PMUs contain much smaller populations. Sage-grouse
abundance declines and sagebrush habitat reductions within the Bi-State
area are both estimated to exceed 50 percent, with losses historically
greater on the periphery of the DPS (Service 2013a, p. 135). Overall,
the remaining habitat is reduced in quality (see various Impact
Analysis discussions in the Species Report including, but not limited
to, the ``Infrastructure,'' ``Nonnative and Native Plants,'' and
``Wildfires and Altered Fire Regime'' sections (Service 2013a, pp. 33-
113)) and, thereby, sage-grouse carrying capacity is also reduced.
Thus, reductions in sage-grouse abundance proportionally exceed habitat
loss (in other words, because sage-grouse habitat quality and quantity
is reduced by greater than 50 percent as compared to historical
information, the expected sage-grouse population numbers (or abundance)
are reduced by more than 50 percent). The residual limited connectivity
of populations and habitats within and among the PMUs also continues to
slowly erode (Service 2013a, pp. 17-29, 34, 51-52, 55, 65, 73-74, 105-
108, 135).
Declining Bi-State DPS population trends continue for the Pine Nut,
Desert Creek-Fales, and Mount Grant PMUs, with an unknown trend for the
White Mountains PMU (Service 2013a, pp. 21-29). These trends are of
critical concern at the DPS level because fluctuations in these small,
less secure populations are likely to result in extirpations and loss
of population redundancy within the DPS. Historical extirpations
outside the existing boundaries of the six PMUs present a similar
pattern of lost peripheral populations (see ``Historical Range/
Distribution'' section of the Species Report) (Service 2013a, pp. 16-
17)). Two range-wide assessments investigating patterns of sage-grouse
population persistence confirm that PMUs on the northern and southern
extents of the Bi-State DPS (i.e., Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, and
White Mountains PMUs) are similar to extirpated sites elsewhere within
the range of greater sage-grouse, while the central PMUs (i.e., South
Mono, Bodie, and Mount Grant PMUs) are similar to extant sites
(Aldridge et al. 2008, entire; Wisdom et al. 2011, entire). In other
words, these assessments suggest that the sage-grouse populations
within the Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, and White Mountains PMUs have
an increased risk of extirpation in the near future as compared to the
other PMUs that currently harbor larger populations.
The Bodie and South Mono PMUs form the central core of the Bi-State
DPS. The Bodie Hills and Long Valley populations are the largest sage-
grouse populations within the Bi-State area and encompass approximately
70 percent of existing Bi-State DPS individuals (Service 2013a, pp. 24-
27). These populations are relatively stable at present (estimates
range from approximately 522 to 2,400 individuals in the Bodie PMU and
859 to 2,005 individuals in the South Mono PMU), and the scope and
severity of known impacts are comparatively less than in other PMUs.
Although populations currently are relatively stable with overall fewer
impacts as compared to the other four PMUs, the Bodie and South Mono
PMUs have experienced prior habitat losses, population declines, and
internal habitat fragmentation. Significant connectivity between the
populations within these two PMUs is currently lacking (Service 2013a,
p. 26, 135), and both PMUs (as well as the other four PMUs) are
increasingly vulnerable to the effects of cheatgrass invasion (Service
2013a, pp. 65-67, 69) and wildfire impacts (Service 2013a, pp. 69-76).
Together, the Bodie and South Mono PMUs represent less than 20
percent of the historical range for the Bi-State DPS (historically, the
DPS occurred throughout most of Mono, eastern Alpine, and northern Inyo
Counties, California (Hall et al. 2008, p. 97), and portions of Carson
City, Douglas, Esmeralda, Lyon, and Mineral Counties, Nevada (Gullion
and Christensen 1957, pp. 131-132; Espinosa 2006)). While both the
Bodie and South Mono PMUs (which harbor the two largest populations)
are projected by sage-grouse experts to have moderate to high
probabilities of persistence into the future (Aldridge et al. 2008,
entire; Wisdom et al. 2011, entire), the Bodie PMU has fluctuated with
positive and

[[Page 64363]]

negative population growth over the past 40 years with no discernible
long-term trend (Service 2013a, pp. 24-26). In addition, the Bodie PMU
is expected to fall below 500 breeding adults within the next 30 years
(Garton et al. 2011, p. 310). The long-term population trend for the
South Mono PMU has been stable (Service 2013a, p. 26-27), but sage-
grouse experts predict an 80 percent chance of the population declining
to fewer than 500 breeding adults in 30 years (Garton et al. 2011, p.
310).
In summary, the Service anticipates a greater risk of sage-grouse
population loss for four of the six PMUs in the Bi-State DPS (i.e.,
Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs) as
compared to the PMUs that harbor the central core or largest
populations (i.e., Bodie and South Mono PMUs). Additionally, the core
population in the Bodie PMU is likely to have reduced viability within
30 years, and the two populations in the South Mono PMU (including one
of two core populations--Long Valley) will likely persist but exhibit
reduced population viability in the next 30 years.
Following are brief accounts of each PMU. Primary threats are
introduced in these summaries and described in more detail in the
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species section below, and fully
evaluated and described in the ``Impact Analysis'' section of the
Species Report (Service 2013a, pp. 33-127).
(1) The Pine Nut PMU has the smallest number of sage-grouse of all
Bi-State DPS PMUs (i.e., 1 population ranging in size from 50 to 331
individuals based on data collected between 2002 and 2012 (Table 1,
above). This population represents approximately 5 percent of the DPS.
The population in the Pine Nut PMU has some level of connectivity with
the Desert Creek-Fales PMU and potentially also with the Bodie and
Mount Grant PMUs. Urbanization, grazing management, wildfire, invasive
species, infrastructure, and mineral development are affecting this
population, and the scope and severity of most of these impacts are
likely to increase into the future based on the proximity of the PMU to
expanding urban areas, agricultural operations, road networks, and
power lines; altered fire regimes; new mineral entry proposals; and
increasing recreational off-highway vehicle (OHV) use on public lands.
Because of the current small population size and the ongoing and
potential future magnitude of habitat impacts, the sage-grouse
population in the Pine Nut PMU (i.e., the northern-most population
within the range of the Bi-State DPS) is at a greater risk of
extirpation than other PMUs within the Bi-State area.
(2) The Desert Creek-Fales PMU straddles the Nevada-California
border and contains two populations, one in each State. The two
populations have ranged in size from 317 to 1,268 individuals between
2002 and 2012 (Table 1, above). The populations in the Desert Creek-
Fales PMU have some level of connectivity with the Pine Nut PMU and
potentially also with the Bodie and Mount Grant PMUs. The most
significant impacts in this PMU are wildfire, invasive species
(specifically conifer encroachment), infrastructure, and urbanization.
Private land acquisitions in California and conifer removal in Nevada
and California have mitigated some of the impacts locally within this
PMU. However, urbanization and woodland succession remain a concern
based on the lack of permanent protection for important brood-rearing
(summer) habitat that occurs primarily on irrigated private pasture
lands and continued pinyon-juniper encroachment that is contracting
distribution of the populations and connectivity between populations.
While some of these impacts are more easily alleviated than others
(e.g., conifer encroachment), the existing condition is likely to
worsen in the future (Bi-State TAC 2012, pp. 24-25). The PMU has seen
episodic sage-grouse population declines in the past, and current
conditions indicate declines may continue. Long-term persistence of the
sage-grouse populations in the Desert Creek-Fales PMU is unlikely
without successful implementation of additional conservation measures.
(3) The Mount Grant PMU contains one population, with population
estimates between 2002 and 2012 ranging from 85 to 1,412 individuals
(Table 1, above). The population in the Mount Grant PMU has some level
of connectivity with the Bodie PMU and potentially also with the Desert
Creek-Fales and Pine Nut PMUs. Habitat impact sources in this PMU
include woodland encroachment, renewable energy and mineral
development, infrastructure, and the potential for wildfire. Woodland
encroachment, mineral development, and infrastructure currently
fragment habitat in this PMU and, in the future, these as well as
wildfire (if it occurs) may reduce or eliminate connectivity to the
sage-grouse population in the adjacent Bodie PMU. Long-term persistence
of the sage-grouse population in the Mount Grant PMU is less likely
than in the other PMUs that currently harbor larger populations of
sage-grouse in the Bi-State area without successful implementation of
additional conservation measures.
(4) The Bodie PMU contains one population (Bodie Hills), which is
one of the two core (largest) populations for the Bi-State DPS.
Population estimates for this PMU over the past decade range from 552
to 2,400 individuals (Table 1, above). This PMU typically has the
highest number of active leks (i.e., 13) of all the PMUs. The
population in the Bodie PMU has some level of connectivity with the
Mount Grant PMU and potentially also with the Desert Creek-Fales and
Pine Nut PMUs. Woodland succession is estimated to have caused a 40
percent reduction in sagebrush habitat throughout the Bodie PMU, and
encroachment into sagebrush habitat is expected to continue both from
woodland edge expansion and infilling. The potential of future wildfire
(largely unrealized) and subsequent widespread habitat loss by
conversion to annual grasses is of greatest concern based on the
increased understory presence of cheatgrass, specifically Wyoming big
sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp. wyomingensis) communities within
the Bodie PMU (e.g., Bodie Hills). In addition, the potential for
additional loss (largely restricted to date) of sage-grouse habitat to
exurban development (i.e., development of a small, usually prosperous
community situated beyond the suburbs of a city) on unprotected private
lands in the Bodie PMU is also a concern because these lands provide
summer and winter use areas and connectivity among the Bodie, Mount
Grant, and Desert Creek-Fales PMUs. Current impacts posed by
infrastructure, grazing, and mineral extraction are of minimal severity
in the Bodie PMU, but additional future impacts are anticipated.
(5) The South Mono PMU contains two populations (Long Valley and
Parker Meadows). The Long Valley population is one of the two largest
(core) populations for the Bi-State DPS. Population estimates for this
PMU over the past decade range from 859 to 2,005 individuals (Table 1).
The South Mono PMU has typically had the highest estimated population
size of all the PMUs. This PMU is considered to be largely isolated
from the other PMUs. Currently, the most significant impacts in the
South Mono PMU are infrastructure and recreation, with the potential
for increased wildfire. An important indirect impact of infrastructure
to the sage-grouse population in Long Valley is predation, likely
associated with the local landfill. Predation (primarily from ravens)

[[Page 64364]]

appears to reduce sage-grouse nest success in Long Valley, although the
population appears stable. The Parker Meadows population currently has
one active lek and is quite small; from 2002 to 2010, male sage-grouse
counts have ranged between 3 and 17. This population has the lowest
reported genetic diversity in the Bi-State area, and it is experiencing
high nest failure rates due to nonviable eggs (Gardner 2009, entire),
potentially indicative of genetic challenges.
(6) The White Mountains PMU contains one population. No recent
population estimate for this southern-most PMU is available, and,
overall, information on population status and impacts is limited. The
area is remote and difficult to access, and most data are from periodic
observations rather than comprehensive surveys. The population in the
White Mountains PMU is considered to be largely isolated from the other
PMUs. Current impacts such as exurban development (e.g., Chiatovich
Creek area (Bi-State Lek Surveillance Program 2012, p. 38)), grazing,
recreation, and invasive species may be influencing portions of the
population and are likely to increase in the future, but current
impacts are considered minimal due to the remote locations of most
known sage-grouse use areas. Potential future impacts from
infrastructure (power lines, roads) and mineral developments could lead
to the loss of the remote, contiguous nature of the habitat. Because
the population in the White Mountains PMU is small and on the periphery
of the range of the Bi-State DPS, it is vulnerable to extirpation if
future impacts increase.

Summary of Factors Affecting the Species

Under the Act, we can determine that a species is an endangered or
threatened species based on any of five factors: (A) The present or
threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or
range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of
existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors
affecting its continued existence.
A threats analysis for the Bi-State DPS is included in the Species
Report (Service 2013a, entire) associated with this proposed rule (and
available at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket No. FWS-R8-ES-
2013-0072, http://www.fws.gov/cno/, http://www.fws.gov/nevada/, and
http://www.fws.gov/ventura/). All potential threats of which we are
aware that are acting upon the Bi-State DPS currently or in the future
(and consistent with the five listing factors identified above) were
evaluated and addressed in the Species Report, and are summarized in
the following paragraphs.
Many of the impacts to sage-grouse populations and sagebrush
habitats in the Bi-State DPS are present throughout the range, and,
while they currently affect the DPS to varying degrees, these impacts
are likely to continue into the future. The populations and habitat in
the northern extent of the Bi-State area, including the Pine Nut,
Desert Creek-Fales, and Mount Grant PMUs, are now and will continue to
be most at risk from the various threats acting upon the Bi-State DPS
and its habitat. We anticipate loss of some populations and contraction
of the ranges of others in these three PMUs (see Species Information
section above and ``Bi-State DPS Population Trends'' section of the
Species Report), which will leave them susceptible to extirpation from
stochastic events such as wildfire, drought, and disease. We expect
that only two isolated populations in the Bodie and South Mono PMUs
(i.e., the Bodie Hills and Long Valley populations, respectively) may
remain in 30 years (Aldridge et al. 2008, entire; Garton et al. 2011,
p. 310; Wisdom et al. 2011, entire).
The impacts that are of high current or future scope and severity
within the DPS (i.e., the most significant threats overall across the
range of the Bi-State DPS) include those that are resulting in the
present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its
habitat or range, and other natural or manmade threats affecting the
DPS's continued existence. These significant threats include
infrastructure (i.e., fences, power lines, and roads) (Factors A and
E); grazing and rangeland management (Factors A, C, and E); nonnative
and native, invasive plants (e.g., pinyon-juniper encroachment,
cheatgrass) (Factors A and E); wildfires and altered fire regime
(Factors A and E); and the small size of the DPS (both the number of
individual populations and their size), which increases the risk of
extinction (Factor E). In addition, the small number, size, and
isolation of the populations may magnify the effects of other less
significant impacts that are currently acting upon the Bi-State DPS,
including urbanization and habitat conversion, mining, renewable energy
development, climate (including drought), overutilization, recreation,
disease, and predation) (Factors A, B, C, and E). Many of these
impacts, including those that are currently considered minor (as
compared to significant), are also cumulatively acting upon the Bi-
State DPS and, therefore, increase the risk of extinction. Following a
thorough analysis of the best available information, we determined that
hunting, scientific and educational uses, pesticides and herbicides,
and contaminants have negligible impacts to the Bi-State DPS at this
time.
The Bi-State DPS is experiencing multiple, identifiable interacting
impacts (i.e., synergistic effects) to sage-grouse populations and
sagebrush habitats that are ongoing (and expected to continue into the
future) in many areas throughout the DPS's range; some of these threats
are imminent in certain portions of the DPS's range. Individually, each
of these impacts is unlikely to affect persistence across the entire
Bi-State DPS, but each may act independently to affect persistence of
individual populations. The scope, severity, and timing of these
impacts vary at the individual PMU level. In particular, rangewide
impacts resulting in fragmentation and the destruction, modification,
or curtailment of the DPS's habitat or range are occurring through
infrastructure; grazing and rangeland management; nonnative and native
invasive species (e.g., cheatgrass, pinyon-juniper encroachment); and
wildfire and an altered fire regime.
While additional less significant impacts are not occurring
everywhere across the DPS at this time (such as, but not limited to,
urbanization, mining, renewable energy development, or West Nile virus
(WNv) infections), where impacts are occurring, the risk they pose to
the DPS could be exacerbated and magnified in the future due to the
small number, size, and isolation of populations within the DPS. We are
unaware of information that can be used to predict future locations
where some impacts could manifest on the landscape (such as effects of
climate change, or locations of wildfires that in turn could continue
the spread of nonnative species such as cheatgrass within the Bi-State
area). To the extent to which these impacts occur within habitat used
by the Bi-State DPS, due to the low number of populations and their
mostly small sizes, the effects to the DPS throughout its range could
be magnified. Due to the scope of the impacts occurring throughout the
range of the DPS, current and anticipated future habitat degradation,
fragmentation and loss, and isolation of already small populations, the
potential severity of impacts to the entire Bi-State DPS is considered
high.
Following are summary evaluations of 16 potential threats to the
Bi-State DPS, including: Nonnative and native,

[[Page 64365]]

invasive species (Factor A and E); wildfires and altered fire regime
(Factors A and E); infrastructure, including roads, power lines,
fences, communication towers, and landfills (Factors A and E); grazing
and rangeland management (Factors A, C, and E); small population size
and population structure (Factor E); urbanization and habitat
conversion (Factor A); mining (Factors A and E); renewable energy
development and associated infrastructure (Factors A and E); disease or
predation (Factor C); climate change, including drought (Factors A and
E); recreation (Factors A and E); overutilization (including commercial
and recreational hunting) (Factor B); scientific and educational uses
(Factor B); pesticides and herbicides (Factor E); and contaminants
(Factor E). The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms was also
evaluated (Factor D). Please see the Species Report (Service 2013a, pp.
33-127) for a full evaluation, including but not limited to, an
evaluation of the scope, severity, and timing of each potential threat
(including many literature citations).

Nonnative and Native, Invasive Plants

Nonnative, invasive plants negatively impact sagebrush ecosystems
by altering plant community structure and composition, productivity,
nutrient cycling, and hydrology (Vitousek 1990, p. 7) (Factor A), and
may cause declines in native plant populations through competitive
exclusion and niche displacement, among other mechanisms (Mooney and
Cleland 2001, p. 5446) (Factor E). They can create long-term changes in
ecosystem processes (Factor A), such as fire cycles (see Wildfires and
Altered Fire Regime section below, and in the Species Report (Service
2013a, pp. 69-76)) and other disturbance regimes that persist even
after an invasive plant is removed (Zouhar et al. 2008, p. 33). A
variety of nonnative annuals and perennials are invasive to sagebrush
ecosystems (Connelly et al. 2004, pp. 7-107 to 7-108; Zouhar et al.
2008, p. 144). Cheatgrass is considered most invasive in Wyoming
sagebrush communities (which is a subspecies of sagebrush that occurs
in the Bi-State area), while medusahead rye (Taeniatherum caput-medusae
(L.) Nevski) fills a similar niche in more mesic communities with
heavier clay soils (Connelly et al. 2004, p. 5-9).
Some native tree species are also invading sagebrush habitat and
impacting the suitability of the habitat for the various life processes
of the Bi-State DPS. Pinyon-juniper woodlands are a native vegetation
community dominated by Pinus edulis (pinyon pine) and various Juniperus
(juniper) species that can encroach upon, infill, and eventually
replace sagebrush habitat (Factors A and E). Some portions of the Bi-
State DPS's range are also being adversely affected by Pinus jeffreyi
(Jeffrey pine) encroachment. Woodland encroachment is causing
significant, measurable habitat loss throughout the range of the Bi-
State DPS. While techniques to address this habitat impact are
available and being implemented, the scale of such efforts is currently
inadequate. Woodlands have expanded by an estimated 20,234 to 60,703
hectares (ha) (50,000 to 150,000 acres (ac)) over the past decade in
the Bi-State area, but woodland treatments have only been implemented
on 6,475 ha (16,000 ac) (Service 2013b, unpublished data). Overall,
forest or woodland encroachment into occupied sage-grouse habitat
reduces, and likely eventually eliminates, sage-grouse use.
Both nonnative and native, invasive plants are impacting the sage-
grouse and its habitat in the Bi-State area. In general, nonnative
plants are not abundant in the Bi-State area, with the exception of
cheatgrass, which occurs in all PMUs throughout the range of the DPS
(although it is currently most extensive in the Pine Nut PMU).
Cheatgrass will likely continue to expand across the entire Bi-State
area in the future and increase the adverse impact that currently
exists to sagebrush habitats and the greater sage-grouse through
outcompeting beneficial understory plant species and altering the fire
ecology of the area. Alteration of the fire ecology of the Bi-State
area is of greatest concern. Land managers have had little success
preventing cheatgrass invasion in the West, and elevational barriers to
occurrence are becoming less restrictive (Miller et al. 2011, p. 161;
Brown and Rowe in litt., entire). The best available data suggest that
future conditions, mostly influenced by precipitation and winter
temperatures, will be more hospitable for cheatgrass (Bradley 2009, p.
201). Cheatgrass is a serious challenge to the sagebrush shrub
community and its spread will be detrimental to sage-grouse in the Bi-
State area. In addition, the encroachment of native woodlands
(particularly pinyon-juniper) into sagebrush habitats is occurring
throughout the Bi-State area, and continued isolation and reduction of
suitable habitats will further adversely influence both short- and
long-term persistence of sage-grouse. We predict that future woodland
encroachment will continue across the entire Bi-State area, but
recognize this is a potentially manageable threat through treatment and
management actions. To date, woodland encroachment has outpaced
management efforts.
Overall, nonnative and native, invasive species occur throughout
the entire Bi-State DPS's range and have a significant impact on the
DPS both currently and in the future. This is based on the extensive
amount of pinyon-juniper encroachment and cheatgrass invasion that is
occurring throughout the range of the Bi-State DPS, and the interacting
impact these invasions have on habitat quality (e.g., reduces foraging
habitat, increases likelihood of wildfire) and habitat fragmentation.
See the ``Nonnative and Native Invasive Species'' section of the
Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 65-69).

Wildfires and Altered Fire Regime

Wildfire is the principle disturbance mechanism affecting sagebrush
communities, although the nature of historical fire patterns,
particularly in Wyoming big sagebrush vegetation communities, is not
well understood and historically infrequent (Miller and Eddleman 2000,
p. 16; Zouhar et al. 2008, p. 154; Baker 2011, pp. 189, 196). The
historical sagebrush systems likely consisted of extensive sagebrush
habitat dotted by small areas of grassland that were maintained by
numerous small fires with long interludes between fires, which
accounted for little burned area, and that were punctuated by large
fire events (Baker 2011, p. 197). In general, fire extensively reduces
sagebrush within burned areas, and the most widespread species of
sagebrush can take decades to re-establish and much longer to return to
pre-burn conditions (Braun 1998, p. 147; Cooper et al. 2007, p. 13;
Lesica et al. 2007, p. 264; Baker, 2011, pp. 194-195).
When intervals between wildfire events become unnaturally long in
sagebrush communities, woodlands have the ability to expand (allowing
seedlings to establish and trees to mature (Miller et al. 2011, p.
167)) when they are adjacent to or are present (in small quantities)
within sagebrush habitat. Conifer woodlands have expanded into
sagebrush ecosystems throughout the sage-grouse's range over the last
century (Miller et al. 2011, p. 162). Alternatively, a shortened fire
frequency interval within sagebrush habitat can result in the invasion
of nonnative, invasive, annual grasses, such as cheatgrass and
medusahead rye; once these nonnatives are established, wildfire
frequency within sagebrush ecosystems can increase (Zouhar et al.

[[Page 64366]]

2008, p. 41; Miller et al. 2011, p. 167; Balch et al. 2013, p. 178).
While multiple factors can influence sagebrush persistence,
wildfire can cause large-scale habitat losses that lead to
fragmentation and isolation of sage-grouse populations (Factors A and
E). In addition to loss of habitat and its influence on sage-grouse
population persistence, fragmentation and isolation of populations
presents a higher probability of extirpation in disjunct areas (Knick
and Hanser 2011, p. 395; Wisdom et al. 2011, p. 469). As areas become
isolated through disturbances such as wildfire, populations are exposed
to additional threats (or threats already present but to a minor or
negligible degree) and the Bi-State DPS's persistence may be hampered
by the limited ability of individuals to disperse into areas that are
otherwise not self-sustaining. Thus, while direct loss of habitat due
to wildfire is a significant factor associated with population
persistence for sage-grouse (Beck et al. 2012, p. 452), the indirect
effect from loss of connectivity among populations may greatly expand
the influence of this threat beyond the physical fire perimeter.
Wildfire is considered a relatively high risk across all the PMUs
in the Bi-State area due to its ability to affect large landscapes in a
short period of time (Bi-State Technical Advisory Committee (TAC) 2012,
pp. 19, 26, 32, 37, 41, 49). Furthermore, the future risk of wildfire
is exacerbated by the presence of people, invasive species, and climate
change. While dozens of wildfires have occurred in the Pine Nut, Desert
Creek-Fales, Bodie, and South Mono PMUs (fewer in the Mount Grant and
White Mountains PMUs) over the past 20 years, to date there have been
relatively few large-scale events. In general, although current data do
not indicate an increase of wildfires in the Bi-State DPS, based on
continuing habitat conditions, we predict an increase in wildfires over
time. Furthermore, cheatgrass is increasing within the Bi-State area,
particularly in the Pine Nut PMU where several recent fires have
occurred, which appears to mirror the damaging fire and invasive
species cycle that affects sagebrush habitat across much of the
southern Great Basin.
Changes in fire ecology over time have resulted in an altered fire
regime in the Bi-State area, presenting future wildfire risk in all
PMUs (Bi-State TAC 2012, pp. 19, 26, 32, 37, 41, 49). A reduction in
fire occurrence has facilitated the expansion of woodlands into montane
sagebrush communities in all PMUs (see Nonnative and Native, Invasive
Plants, above). Meanwhile, a pattern of overabundance in wildfire
occurrence in sagebrush communities is apparent in the Pine Nut PMU.
Each of these alterations to wildfire regimes has contributed to
fragmentation of habitat and the isolation of the sage-grouse
populations (Bi-State Local Planning Group 2004, pp. 95-96, 133).
The loss of habitat due to wildfire across the West is anticipated
to increase due to the intensifying, synergistic interactions among
fire, people, invasive species, and climate change (Miller et al. 2011,
p. 184). The recent past- and present-day fire regimes across the sage-
grouse's range (i.e., beyond the range of the Bi-State DPS) have
changed with a demonstrated increase of wildfires in the more arid
Wyoming big sagebrush communities and a decrease of wildfire across
many mountain sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana)
communities (Miller et al. 2011, pp. 167-169). Both altered fire regime
scenarios have caused losses to sage-grouse habitat through
facilitating nonnative, invasive weed encroachment at lower elevations
and conifer expansion at high-elevation interfaces (Miller et al. 2011,
pp. 167-169).
In the face of climate change, both scenarios are anticipated to
worsen (Baker 2011, p. 200; Miller et al. 2011, p. 179), including in
the Bi-State area. Predicted changes in temperature, precipitation, and
carbon dioxide (see ``Climate Change'' section of the Species Report
(Service 2013a, pp. 76-83)) are all anticipated to influence vegetation
dynamics and alter fire patterns resulting in the increasing loss and
conversion of sagebrush habitats (Neilson et al. 2005, p. 157). Many
climate scientists suggest that in addition to the predicted change in
climate toward a warmer and generally dryer Great Basin, variability of
interannual and interdecadal wet-dry cycles will likely increase and
act in concert with fire, disease, and invasive species to further
stress the sagebrush ecosystem (Neilson et al. 2005, p. 152). See the
Synergistic Effects section below and the ``Overall Summary of Species
Status and Impacts'' section of the Species Report (Service 2013a, pp.
135-147) for further discussion of synergistic effects. The anticipated
increase in suitable conditions for wildland fire will likely further
be influenced by people and infrastructure. Human-caused fires have
increased and are correlated with road presence across the sage-
grouse's range, and a similar pattern may exist in the Bi-State area
(Miller et al. 2011, p. 171).
Fire is one of the primary factors linked to population declines of
sage-grouse across the West because of long-term loss of sagebrush and
frequent conversion to monocultures of nonnative, invasive grasses
(Connelly and Braun 1997, p. 7; Johnson et al. 2011, p. 424; Knick and
Hanser 2011, p. 395). Within the Bi-State area, the Bureau of Land
Management (BLM) and U.S. Forest Service (USFS) currently manage the
area to limit the loss of sagebrush habitat given adequate resources
(BLM 2012, entire; USFS 2012, entire). Based on the best available
information, historical wildfire events have not removed a significant
amount of sagebrush habitat across the Bi-State area, and conversion of
sagebrush habitat to a nonnative invasive vegetation community has been
restricted (except for the Pine Nut PMU). It does appear that a lack of
historical fire has facilitated the establishment of woodland
vegetation communities and loss of sagebrush habitat. Both the ``too-
little'' and ``too-much'' fire scenarios present challenges for the Bi-
State DPS. The former influences the current degree of connectivity
among sage-grouse populations in the Bi-State area and the extent of
available sagebrush habitat, likely affecting sage-grouse population
size and persistence as a result of habitat modification (such as
through conifer encroachment). The latter, under current conditions,
now has the potential to quickly alter a large portion of remaining
sagebrush habitat.
Restoration of altered sagebrush communities following fire is
difficult, requires many years, and may be ineffective in the presence
of nonnative, invasive grass species. Additionally, sage-grouse are
slow to recolonize burned areas even if structural features of the
shrub community have recovered (Knick et al. 2011, p. 233).
While it is not currently possible to predict the extent or
location of future fire events in the Bi-State area, and historical
wildfire events have not removed a significant amount of sagebrush
habitat across Bi-State area to date, we anticipate fire frequency to
increase in the future due to the increasing presence of cheatgrass and
people, and the projected effects of climate change. Given the
fragmented nature and small size of the populations within the Bi-State
DPS, increasing wildfires in sagebrush habitats would likely have a
significant adverse effect on the overall viability of the DPS.
Overall, this threat of wildfire and the existing altered fire
regime occurs throughout the Bi-State DPS's range, and has a
significant impact on the DPS both currently and in the future. This is
based on a continued fire frequency that

[[Page 64367]]

exacerbates pinyon-juniper encroachment into sagebrush habitat in some
locations, but also an increased fire frequency in other locations that
promotes the spread of cheatgrass and other invasive species that in
turn can hamper recovery of sagebrush habitat. See the ``Wildfires and
Altered Fire Regime'' section of the Species Report for further
discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 69-76).

Infrastructure

Infrastructure is described in the Species Report (Service 2013a,
pp. 38-52) to include features that assist or are required for the
pursuit of human-initiated development or an associated action. Five
infrastructure features are impacting the Bi-State DPS: three linear
features (roads, power lines, and fences) and two site-specific
features (landfills and communication towers). While there may be other
features that could be characterized as infrastructure (such as
railroads or pipelines), these are not present in the Bi-State area,
and we are unaware of any information suggesting they would impact the
Bi-State DPS in the future.
In the Bi-State area, linear infrastructure impacts each PMU both
directly and indirectly to varying degrees. Existing roads, power
lines, and fences degrade and fragment sage-grouse habitat (such as
Braun 1998, pp. 145, 146) (Factor A), and contribute to direct
mortality through collisions (such as Patterson 1952, p. 81) (Factor
E). In addition, roads, power lines, and fences deter the sage-grouse's
use of otherwise suitable habitats adjacent to current active areas,
and increase predators and invasive plants (such as Forman and
Alexander 1998, pp. 207-231 and Connelly et al. 2000a, p. 974).
The impact to the Bi-State DPS caused by indirect effects extends
beyond the immediate timeframe associated with the infrastructure
installation (i.e., the existence of an extended road system, power
lines, and fencing already likely limit our ability to recover the Bi-
State DPS in various areas). We do not have consistent and comparable
information on miles of existing roads, power lines, or fences, or
densities of these features within PMUs or for the Bi-State area as a
whole. However, given current and future development (based on known
energy resources), the Mount Grant, Desert Creek-Fales, Pine Nut, and
South Mono PMUs are likely to be the most directly influenced by new
power lines and associated infrastructure. Wisdom et al. (2011, p. 463)
reported that across the entire range of the greater sage-grouse, the
mean distance to highways and transmission lines for extirpated
populations was approximately 5 kilometers (km) (3.1 miles (mi)) or
less. In the Bi-State area, between 35 and 45 percent of annually
occupied leks are within 5 km (3.1 mi) of highways, and between 40 and
50 percent are within this distance to existing transmission lines
(Service 2013b, unpublished data). Therefore, the apparent similarity
between existing Bi-State conditions and extirpated populations
elsewhere suggests that persistence of substantial numbers of leks
within the Bi-State DPS will likely be negatively influenced by these
anthropogenic features.
The geographic extent, density, type, and frequency of linear
infrastructure disturbance in the Bi-State area have changed over time.
While substantial new development of some of these features (e.g.,
highways) is unlikely, other infrastructure features are likely to
increase (secondary roads, power lines, fencing, and communication
towers). Furthermore, improvements to existing roads are possible, and
traffic volume will likely increase, which may be a bigger impact than
road development itself. For example, with the proliferation of OHV
usage within the range of the Bi-State DPS, the potential impact to the
sage-grouse and its habitat caused by continued use of secondary or
unimproved roads may become of greater importance as traffic volume
increases rates of disturbance and the spread of nonnative invasive
species in areas that traditionally have been traveled relatively
sporadically.
Other types of non-road infrastructure (e.g., cellular towers and
landfills) also appear to be adversely impacting the Bi-State DPS. At
least eight cellular tower locations are currently known to exist in
occupied habitat (all PMUs) in the Bi-State area. Wisdom et al. (2011,
p. 463) determined that presence of cellular towers likely contribute
to population extirpation, and additional tower installations will
likely occur in the near future as development continues. The landfill
facility in Long Valley (within the South Mono PMU) is likely
influencing sage-grouse population demography in the area, as nest
success is comparatively low and subsidized avian nest predator numbers
are high (Kolada et al. 2009, p. 1,344). While this large population of
sage-grouse (i.e., one of two core populations in the Bi-State area)
currently appears stable, recovery following any potential future
perturbations affecting other vital rates (i.e., brood survival and
adult survival) will be limited by nesting success.
Overall, infrastructure occurs in various forms throughout the Bi-
State DPS's range and has adversely impacted the DPS. These impacts are
expected to continue or increase in the future and result in habitat
fragmentation; limitations for sage-grouse recovery actions due to an
extensive road network, power lines, and fencing; and a variety of
direct and indirect impacts, such as loss of individuals from
collisions or structures that promote increased potential for
predation. Collectively, these threats may result in perturbations that
influence both demographic vital rates of sage-grouse (e.g.,
reproductive success and adult sage-grouse survival) and habitat
suitability in the Bi-State area. See the ``Infrastructure'' section of
the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 38-52).

Grazing and Rangeland Management

Livestock grazing continues to be the most widespread land use
across the sagebrush biome (Knick et al. 2003, p. 616; Connelly et al.
2004, p. 7-29; Knick et al. 2011, p. 219), including within the Bi-
State area. However, links between grazing practices and population
levels of sage-grouse are not well-studied (Braun 1987, p. 137;
Connelly and Braun 1997, p. 231). Domestic livestock management has the
potential to result in sage-grouse habitat degradation (Factor A).
Grazing can adversely impact nesting and brood-rearing habitat by
decreasing vegetation used for concealment from predators (Factors A
and C). Grazing also compacts soils; decreases herbaceous abundance;
increases soil erosion; and increases the probability of invasion of
nonnative, invasive plant species (Factor A). Livestock management and
associated infrastructure (such as water developments and fencing) can
degrade important nesting and brood rearing habitat, reduce nesting
success, and facilitate the spread of WNv (Factors A, C, and E).
However, despite numerous documented negative impacts, some research
suggests that under specific conditions, grazing domestic livestock can
benefit sage-grouse (Klebenow 1982, p. 121). Other research conducted
in Nevada found that cattle grazing can be used to stimulate forbs
important as sage-grouse food (Neel 1980, entire; Klebenow 1982,
entire; Evans 1986, entire).
Similar to domestic livestock, grazing and management of feral
horses have the potential to negatively affect sage-grouse habitats by
decreasing grass cover, fragmenting shrub canopies, altering soil
characteristics, decreasing plant diversity, and increasing the
abundance of invasive cheatgrass (Factor A). Native ungulates (mule
deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra
americana)) co-

[[Page 64368]]

exist with sage-grouse in the Bi-State area, but we are not aware of
significant impacts from these species on sage-grouse populations or
sage-grouse habitat. However, the impacts from different ungulate taxa
may have an additive negative influence on sage-grouse habitats (Beever
and Aldridge 2011, p. 286). Cattle, horses, mule deer, and pronghorn
antelope each use the sagebrush ecosystem somewhat differently, and the
combination of multiple ungulate species may produce a different result
than a single species.
There are localized areas of habitat degradation in the Bi-State
area attributable to past grazing practices that indirectly and,
combined with other impacts, cumulatively affect sage-grouse habitat.
In general, upland sagebrush communities in the Pine Nut and Mount
Grant PMUs deviate from desired conditions for sage-grouse due to lack
of understory plant species, while across the remainder of the PMUs
localized areas of meadow degradation are apparent, and these
conditions may influence sage-grouse populations through altering
nesting and brood-rearing success. Currently, there is little direct
evidence linking grazing effects and sage-grouse population responses.
Analyses for grazing impacts at the landscape scales important to sage-
grouse are confounded by the fact that almost all sage-grouse habitat
has at one time been grazed, and thus, no ungrazed control areas exist
for comparisons (Knick et al. 2011, p. 232). Across the Bi-State area,
we anticipate rangeland management will continue into the future, and
some aspects (such as feral horses) will remain difficult to manage.
Remaining impacts caused by historical practices will linger as
vegetation communities and disturbance regimes recover. Change will
likely occur slowly, and alterations to climate and drought cycles will
present additional stress on vegetation resources as well as the nature
and extent of recovery to sage-grouse and its habitat.
Overall, impacts from past grazing and rangeland management occur
within localized areas throughout the Bi-State DPS's range (i.e., all
PMUs, although it is more pronounced in some PMUs than others). These
impacts have resulted in ongoing habitat degradation that significantly
affect sage-grouse habitat indirectly and cumulatively in the Bi-State
area, resulting in an overall reduction in aspects of habitat quality
(e.g., fragmentation, lack of understory plants, increased presence of
nonnative plant species), especially in the Pine Nut and Mount Grant
PMUs. See the ``Grazing and Rangeland Management'' section of the
Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 58-64).

Small Population Size and Population Structure

Sage-grouse have low reproductive rates and high annual survival
(Schroeder et al. 1999, pp. 11, 14; Connelly et al. 2000a, pp. 969-
970), resulting in a long recovery period due to slower potential or
intrinsic population growth rates than is typical of other game birds.
Also, as a consequence of their site fidelity to seasonal habitats
(Lyon and Anderson 2003, p. 489), measurable population effects may lag
behind negative habitat impacts (Wiens and Rotenberry 1985, p. 666).
Sage-grouse populations have been described as exhibiting multi-annual
fluctuations, meaning that some mechanism or combination of mechanisms
is causing populations to fluctuate through time. In general, while
various natural history characteristics would not limit sage-grouse
populations across large geographic scales under historical conditions
of extensive habitat, they may contribute to local population declines
or extirpations when populations are small or when weather patterns,
habitats, or mortality rates are altered (Factor E).
The Bi-State DPS is comprised of approximately 43 active leks
representing 4 to 8 relatively discrete populations (see Species
Information, above, and the ``Current Range/Distribution and Population
Estimates/Annual Lek Counts'' section of the Species Report (Service
2013a, pp. 17-29)). Fitness and population size within the Bi-State DPS
are strongly correlated and smaller populations are more subject to
environmental and demographic stochasticity (Keller and Waller 2002,
pp. 239-240; Reed 2005, p. 566). When coupled with mortality stressors
related to human activity (e.g., infrastructure, recreation) and
significant fluctuations in annual population size, long-term
persistence of small populations (in general) is unlikely (Traill et
al., 2010, entire). The Pine Nut PMU has the smallest number of sage-
grouse of all Bi-State area PMUs (usually fewer than 100 individuals,
and ranging from 50 to 331 individuals as observed from data collected
between 2002 and 2012 (Table 1, above), representing approximately 5
percent of the DPS). However, each population in the Bi-State DPS is
relatively small and below theoretical minimum threshold (as
interpreted by sage-grouse experts and not statistically proven
(Aldridge and Brigham 2003, p. 30; Garton et al. 2011, pp. 310, 374)
for long-term persistence, as is the entire DPS on average (estimated
1,833 to 7,416 individuals).
Overall, small population size and population structure occur
throughout the Bi-State DPS's range and have a significant impact on
the DPS both currently and likely in the future. This is based on our
understanding of the overall DPS population size and the apparent
isolation among populations contained within the DPS, as inferred from
demographic and genetic investigations (e.g., Casazza et al. 2009,
entire; Oyler-McCance and Casazza 2011, p. 10; Tebenkamp 2012, p. 66).
This, combined with the collective literature (Franklin and Frankham
1998, entire; Lynch and Lande 1998, entire; Reed 2005, entire; Traill
et al., 2010, entire) available that demonstrates both long-term
population persistence and evolutionary potential, is challenged in
small populations. Some literature (i.e., Franklin and Frankham 1998,
entire; Traill et al. 2010, entire) suggest that greater than 5,000
individuals are required for a population to have an acceptable degree
of resilience in the face of environmental fluctuations and
catastrophic events, and for the continuation of evolutionary process.
According to the best available information presented in our analysis
for the Bi-State area (Service 2013a, Table 1, pp. 20-31), the largest
estimated populations (based on data from 2002 through 2012) are within
the Bodie PMU (522 to 2,400 individuals) and South Mono PMU (859 to
2,005 individuals). See additional discussion the ``Small Population
Size and Population Structure'' section of the Species Report for
further discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 105-110).

Urbanization and Habitat Conversion

Historical and recent conversion of sagebrush habitat on private
lands for agriculture, housing, and associated infrastructure (Factor
A) within the Bi-State area has negatively affected sage-grouse
distribution and population extent in the Bi-State DPS, thus limiting
current and future conservation opportunities in the Bi-State area.
These alterations to habitat have been most pronounced in the Pine Nut
and Desert Creek-Fales PMUs and to a lesser extent the Bodie, Mount
Grant, South Mono, and White Mountains PMUs. Although only 14 percent
of suitable sage-grouse habitat occurs on private lands in the Bi-State
area, and only a subset of that could potentially be developed,
conservation actions on adjacent public lands could be compromised due
to the high percentage (up to approximately 75 percent (Service 2013b,
unpublished data)) of late brood-rearing habitat that

[[Page 64369]]

occurs on the private lands. Sage-grouse display strong site fidelity
to traditional seasonal habitats and loss of specific sites (such as
mesic meadow or spring habitats that typically occur on potentially
developable private lands in the Bi-State area) can have pronounced
population impacts (Connelly et al. 2000a, p. 970; Atamian et al. 2010,
p. 1533). The influence of land development and habitat conversion on
the population dynamics of sage-grouse is greater than a simple measure
of spatial extent because of the indirect effects from the associated
increases in human activity, as well as the disproportionate importance
of some seasonal habitat areas, such as mesic areas for brood-rearing.
Although not currently considered a significant threat,
urbanization and habitat conversion is not universal across the Bi-
State area, but localized areas of impacts have been realized
throughout the DPS's range, and additional future impacts are
anticipated. At this time, we are concerned because of the high
percentage of late brood-rearing habitat that could be impacted on
these private lands. See the ``Urbanization and Habitat Conversion''
section of the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a,
pp. 33-38).

Mining

Surface and subsurface mining for mineral resources (gold, silver,
aggregate, and others) results in direct loss of habitat if occurring
in sagebrush habitats (Factor A). The direct impact from surface mining
is usually greater than it is from subsurface mining, and habitat loss
from both types of mining can be exacerbated by the storage of
overburden (soil removed to reach subsurface resource) in otherwise
undisturbed habitat. Sage-grouse and nests with eggs could be directly
affected by crushing or vehicle collision (Factor E). Sage-grouse also
could be impacted indirectly from an increase in human presence, land
use practices, ground shock, noise, dust, reduced air quality,
degradation of water quality and quantity, and changes in vegetation
and topography (Moore and Mills 1977, entire; Brown and Clayton 2004,
p. 2) (Factor E).
Currently, operational surface and subsurface mining activities are
not impacting the two largest (core) populations within the Bi-State
DPS (although areas in multiple PMUs are open to mineral development,
and mining operations are currently active in the Mount Grant, Bodie,
South Mono, and Pine Nut PMUs, including some occupied habitat areas).
In addition, existing inactive mine sites and potential future
developments could impact important lek complexes and connectivity
areas between, at minimum, the Bodie and Mount Grant PMUs. If
additional mineral developments occur in sagebrush habitats within any
PMU, this could negatively influence the distribution of sage-grouse
and the connectivity among breeding complexes. There is potential for
additional mineral developments to occur in the Bi-State area in the
future based on known existing mineral resources and recent permit
request inquiries with local land managers. While all six PMUs have the
potential for mineral development, based on current land designations
and past activity, the Pine Nut and Mount Grant PMUs are most likely to
see new and additional activity.
Overall, mining currently occurs in limited locations within four
PMUs, including small-scale activities such as gold and silver
exploration (Pine Nut, Bodie, and South Mono PMUs), and two open pit
mines (Mount Grant PMU). These existing activities may be impacting one
large lek in the Bodie PMU; four leks in the Mount Grant PMU, including
the Aurora lek complex, which is the largest remaining lek in this PMU;
and an undetermined number (although likely few) leks in the South Mono
PMU. Additionally, new proposals being considered for mining activity
in the Pine Nut PMU could, if approved, impact the single active lek
remaining in the north end of the Pine Nut PMU. In general, potential
exists for operations to expand both currently and into the future. By
itself, mining is not considered a significant impact at this time, but
is a concern based on existing impacts to sage-grouse and its habitat
outside of the two largest (core) populations, the potential for mining
activities to impact important lek complexes and connectivity areas
between (at minimum) the Bodie and Mount Grant PMUs in the future, and
the likely synergistic effects occurring when this threat is combined
with other threats acting on the Bi-State DPS currently and in the
future. See the ``Mining'' section of the Species Report for further
discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 52-54).

Renewable Energy Development

Renewable energy facilities (including geothermal facilities, wind
power facilities, and solar arrays) require structures such as power
lines and roads for construction and operation, and avoidance of such
features by sage-grouse (Factor E) and other prairie grouse is
documented (Holloran 2005, p. 1; Pruett et al. 2009, p. 6; see
discussions regarding roads and power lines in the ``Infrastructure''
section of the Species Report (Service 2013a, pp. 40-47)). Renewable
energy development and expansion could result in direct loss of habitat
and indirect impacts affecting population viability (e.g.,
fragmentation and isolation) (Factor A).
Minimal direct habitat loss has occurred in the Bi-State DPS due to
renewable energy development, specifically from the only operational
geothermal facility in the Bi-State area, which is within the South
Mono PMU. However, the likelihood of additional renewable energy
facility development, especially geothermal, in the Bi-State area is
high based on current Federal leases. Inquiries by energy developers
(geothermal, wind) have increased in the past several years (Dublino
2011, pers. comm.). There is strong political and public support for
energy diversification in Nevada and California, and the energy
industry considers the available resources in the Bi-State area to
warrant investment (Renewable Energy Transmission Access Advisory
Committee 2007, p. 8). Based on our current assessment of development
probability, the Mount Grant PMU and to a lesser degree the Desert
Creek-Fales PMU are most likely to be negatively affected by renewable
energy development. However, interest by developers of renewable energy
changes rapidly, making it difficult to predict potential outcomes.
Overall, renewable energy development has impacted one location in
the South Mono PMU to date, and could potentially result in impacts
throughout the Bi-State DPS's range in the future based on current
leases. The best available data indicate that several locations in the
Bi-State area (Pine Nut and South Mono PMUs) have suitable wind
resources based on recent leasing and inquiries by facility developers
(although no active leases currently occur), and it appears the Mount
Grant PMU and to a lesser degree the Desert Creek-Fales PMU are likely
to be most negatively affected. We are uncertain of the probability of
seeing future inquires or development of wind energy in the Bi-State
area. By itself, renewable energy development is not considered a
significant impact at this time, but is a concern based on a
combination of current activity, existing leases, the strong political
and private support for energy diversification, the probability of new
or expanding development in most likely a minimum of two PMUs, and the
likely synergistic effects occurring when this threat is combined with
other threats acting on the Bi-State DPS

[[Page 64370]]

currently and in the future. See the ``Renewable Energy Development''
section of the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a,
pp. 54-58).

Disease

Sage-grouse are hosts for a variety of parasites and diseases
(Factor C) including macroparasitic arthropods, helminths (worms), and
microparasites (protozoa, bacteria, viruses, and fungi) (Thorne et al.
1982, p. 338; Connelly et al. 2004, pp. 10-4 to 10-7; Christiansen and
Tate 2011, p. 114), which can have varying effects on populations.
Connelly et al. (2004, p. 10-6) note that, while parasitic
relationships may be important to the long-term ecology of sage-grouse,
they have not been shown to be significant to the immediate population
status across the range of the DPS. However, Connelly et al. (2004, p.
10-3) and Christiansen and Tate (2011, p. 126) suggest that diseases
and parasites may limit isolated sage-grouse populations as they
interact with other demographic parameters such as reproductive success
and immigration, and thus, the effects of emerging diseases require
additional study.
Viruses (such as coronavirus and WNv) are serious diseases that are
known to cause death in grouse species, potentially influencing
population dynamics (Petersen 2004, p. 46) (Factor C). Efficacy and
transmission of WNv in sagebrush habitats is primarily regulated by
environmental factors including temperature, precipitation, and
anthropogenic water sources, such as stock ponds and coal-bed methane
ponds that support mosquito vectors (Reisen et al. 2006, p. 309; Walker
and Naugle 2011, pp. 131-132). WNv can be a threat to some sage-grouse
populations, and its occurrence and impacts are likely underestimated
due to lack of monitoring. The impact of this disease in the Bi-State
DPS is likely currently limited by ambient temperatures that do not
allow consistent vector and virus maturation. Predicted temperature
increases associated with climate change may result in this threat
becoming more consistently prevalent. We have no indication that other
diseases or parasites are impacting the Bi-State DPS.
Overall, multiple diseases have the potential to occur in the Bi-
State area, although WNv appears to be the only identified disease that
warrants concern for sage-grouse in the Bi-State area. By itself it is
not considered a significant impact at this time because it is
currently limited by ambient temperatures that do not allow consistent
vector and virus maturation. However, WNv remains a potential threat
and concern for the future based on predicted temperature increases
associated with climate change that could result in this threat
becoming more consistently prevalent. See the disease discussion under
the ``Disease and Predation'' section of the Species Report for further
discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 93-99).

Predation

Predation of sage-grouse as a food item is the most commonly
identified cause of direct mortality during all life stages (Schroeder
et al. 1999, p. 9; Connelly et al. 2000b, p. 228; Casazza et al. 2009,
p. 45; Connelly et al. 2011, p. 65) (Factor C). However, sage-grouse
have co-evolved with a variety of predators, and their cryptic plumage
and behavioral adaptations have allowed them to persist (Schroeder et
al. 1999, p. 10; Coates 2008, p. 69; Coates and Delehanty 2008, p. 635;
Hagen 2011, p. 96). Predation of sage-grouse can occur at all life
cycle stages. Within the Bi-State DPS, predation facilitated by habitat
fragmentation (fences, power lines, and roads) and other human
activities may be altering natural population dynamics in specific
areas of the Bi-State DPS. Data suggest certain populations are
exhibiting deviations in vital rates below those anticipated (Koloda et
al. 2009, p. 1344; Sedinger et al. 2011. p. 324). For example, in Long
Valley (South Mono PMU) nest predators associated with a county
landfill may be lowering nesting success. In addition, low adult
survival estimates for the Desert Creek-Fales PMU suggest predators may
be influencing population growth there. However, we generally consider
habitat alteration as the root cause of these results; teasing apart
the interaction between predation rate and habitat condition is
difficult.
Overall, predation is currently known to occur throughout the Bi-
State DPS's range. It is facilitated by habitat fragmentation (fences,
power lines, and roads) and other human activities that may be altering
natural population dynamics in specific areas throughout the Bi-State
DPS's range. By itself it is not considered a significant impact at
this time, but is a concern currently and in the future based on data
suggesting certain populations are exhibiting deviations in vital rates
below those anticipated, including potential impacts to the Long Valley
population, which is one of the two largest (core) populations for the
Bi-State DPS. See the predation discussion under the ``Disease and
Predation'' section of the Species Report for further discussion
(Service 2013a, pp. 99-105).

Climate

Climate change projections in the Great Basin suggest a hotter and
stable-to-declining level of precipitation and a shift in precipitation
events to the summer months; fire frequency is expected to accelerate,
fires may become larger and more severe, and fire seasons will be
longer (Brown et al. 2004, pp. 382-383; Neilson et al. 2005, p. 150;
Chambers and Pellant 2008, p. 31; Global Climate Change Impacts in the
United States 2009, p. 83). With these projections, drought (which is a
natural part of the sagebrush ecosystem) is likely to be exacerbated.
Drought reduces vegetation cover (Milton et al. 1994, p. 75; Connelly
et al. 2004, p. 7-18), potentially resulting in increased soil erosion
and subsequent reduced soil depths, decreased water infiltration, and
reduced water storage capacity (Factor A). Drought can also exacerbate
other natural events such as defoliation of sagebrush by insects
(Factor A). These habitat component losses can result in declining
sage-grouse populations due to increased nest predation and early brood
mortality (Factor E) associated with decreased nest cover and food
availability (Braun 1998, p. 149; Moynahan et al. 2007, p. 1781).
Climate change will potentially act synergistically with other
impacts to the Bi-State DPS, further diminishing habitat (Factor A) and
increasing isolation of populations (Factor E), making them more
susceptible to demographic and genetic challenges or disease.
Predicting the impact of global climate change on sage-grouse
populations is challenging due to the relatively small spatial extent
of the Bi-State area. It is likely that vegetation communities will not
remain static and the amount of sagebrush shrub habitat will decrease.
Further, increased variation in drought cycles due to climate change
will likely place additional stress on the populations. While sage-
grouse evolved with drought, drought has been correlated with
population declines and has shown to be a limiting factor to population
growth in areas where habitats have been compromised.
In the Bi-State area, drought is a natural part of the sagebrush
ecosystem, and we are unaware of any information to suggest that
drought has influenced population dynamics of sage-grouse under
historical conditions. There are known occasions, however, where
reduced brood-rearing habitat conditions due to drought have resulted

[[Page 64371]]

in little to no recruitment within certain PMUs (Bodie and Pine Nut
PMUs (Gardner 2009)). Given the relatively small and restricted extent
of this population, if these conditions were to persist longer than the
typical adult life span, drought could have significant ramifications
on population persistence. Further, drought impacts on the sage-grouse
may be exacerbated when combined with other habitat impacts that reduce
cover and food (Braun 1998, p. 148).
Based on the best available scientific and commercial information,
the threat of climate change is not known to currently impact the Bi-
State DPS to such a degree that the viability of the DPS is at stake.
However, while it is reasonable to assume the Bi-State area will
experience vegetation changes into the future (as presented above), we
do not know with precision the nature of these changes or ultimately
the effect this will have on the Bi-State DPS. A recent analysis
conducted by NatureServe, which incorporates much of the information
presented above, suggests a substantial contraction of both sagebrush
and sage-grouse range in the Bi-State area by 2060 (Comer et al. 2012,
pp. 142, 145). Specifically (for example), this analysis suggests the
current extent of suitable shrub habitat will decrease because a less
suitable climate condition for sagebrush may improve suitability for
woodland and drier vegetation communities, which are not favorable to
the Bi-State DPS.
In addition, it is reasonable to assume that changes in atmospheric
carbon dioxide levels, temperature, precipitation, and timing of
snowmelt will act synergistically with other threats (such as wildfire
and invasive, nonnative species) to produce yet unknown but likely
negative effects to sage-grouse populations in the Bi-State area. As a
result of these predictions, it is reasonable to assume that the
impacts of climate change (acting both alone and in concert with
impacts such as disease and nonnative, invasive species) could be
pervasive throughout the range of the Bi-State DPS, potentially
degrading habitat to such a degree that all populations would be
negatively affected. Therefore, given the scope and potential severity
of climate change when interacting with other threats in the future,
the overall impact of climate change to the Bi-State DPS at this time
is considered moderate.
Overall, this threat occurs (i.e., drought) and potentially occurs
(i.e., climate change) throughout the Bi-State DPS's range. By itself
it is not considered a significant impact at this time, but is a
concern based on its scope and potential severity when interacting with
other threats. See the ``Climate'' section of the Species Report for
further discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 76-83).

Recreation

Non-consumptive recreational activities (such as fishing, hiking,
horseback riding, and camping as well as more recently popularized
activities, such as OHV use and mountain biking) occur throughout the
range of the greater sage-grouse, including throughout the Bi-State DPS
area. These activities can degrade wildlife resources, water, and land
by distributing refuse, disturbing and displacing wildlife, increasing
animal mortality, and simplifying plant communities (Boyle and Samson
1985, pp. 110-112) (Factor E). For example, disruption of sage-grouse
during vulnerable periods at leks, or during nesting or early brood
rearing, could affect reproduction and survival (Baydack and Hein 1987,
pp. 537-538). In addition, indirect effects to sage-grouse from
recreational activities include impacts to vegetation and soils, and
the facilitation of the spread of invasive species (Factor A). Impacts
caused by recreational activities may be affecting sage-grouse
populations in the Bi-State area, and there are known localized habitat
impacts.
Overall, recreation occurs throughout the Bi-State DPS's range,
although we do not have data on the severity of these impacts. By
itself recreation is not considered a significant impact at this time,
but some forms of recreation could become a concern based on
anticipated increases of recreation use within the Bi-State area in the
future. Populations of sage-grouse in the South Mono PMU are exposed to
the greatest degree of pedestrian recreational activity, although they
appear relatively stable at present. See the ``Recreation'' section of
the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 87-90).

Overutilization Impacts

Potential overutilization impacts include recreational hunting
(Factor B). Sage-grouse have not been commercially harvested in the Bi-
State area since the 1930s, and they are not expected to be
commercially harvested in the future. Limited recreational hunting,
based on the concept of compensatory mortality, was allowed across most
of the DPS's range with the increase of sage-grouse populations by the
1950s (Patterson 1952, p. 242; Autenrieth 1981, p. 11). In recent
years, hunting as a form of compensatory mortality for upland game
birds (which includes sage-grouse) has been questioned (Connelly et al.
2005, pp. 660, 663; Reese and Connelly 2011, p. 111).
Recreational hunting is currently limited in the Bi-State DPS and
within generally accepted harvest guidelines. In the Nevada portion of
the Bi-State area, NDOW regulates hunting of sage-grouse. Most hunting
of sage-grouse in the Nevada portion of the Bi-State area is closed.
NDOW closed the shotgun and archery seasons for sage-grouse in 1997,
and the falconry season in 2003 (NDOW 2012b, in litt., p. 4). Hunting
of sage-grouse may occur on tribal allotments located in the Pine Nut
PMU where the Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California has authority.
There are anecdotal reports of harvest by tribal members, but currently
the Washoe Tribe Hunting and Fishing Commission does not issue harvest
permits for greater sage-grouse (Warpea 2009). In the California
portion of the Bi-State area, CDFW regulates hunting of sage-grouse.
Hunting historically occurred and continues to occur in the Long Valley
(South Mono PMU) and Bodie Hills (Bodie PMU) areas (known as the South
Mono and North Mono Hunt Units, respectively). As a result of work by
Gibson (1998, entire) and documented population declines in the Bi-
State DPS, CDFW has significantly reduced the number of permits issued
(Service 2004, pp. 74-75; Gardner 2008).
It is unlikely that the scope and severity of hunting impacts would
act in an additive manner to natural mortality. In the Bi-State area,
hunting is limited to such a degree that it is not apparently
restrictive to overall population growth currently nor expected to
become so in the future (CDFW 2012). Furthermore, we are unaware of any
information to indicate that poaching or non-consumptive uses
significantly impact Bi-State sage-grouse populations.
Overall, sport hunting is currently limited and within generally
accepted harvest guidelines. It is unlikely that hunting will ever
reach levels again that would act in an additive manner to mortality.
In the Bi-State area, hunting is limited to such a degree that it is
not apparently restrictive to overall population growth. Furthermore,
we are unaware of any information indicating that overutilization is
significantly impacting sage-grouse populations in the Bi-State area.
Given the current level and location of harvest, and expected continued
management into the future, the impact this factor has on population
persistence appears negligible. See the ``Overutilization Impacts''
section of the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a,
pp. 83-87).

[[Page 64372]]

Scientific and Educational Uses

Mortality and behavioral impacts to sage-grouse may occur as a
result of scientific research activities (Factor B). Sage-grouse in the
Bi-State area have been subject to several scientific research efforts
over the past decade involving capture, handling, and subsequent
banding or radio-marking. Much remains unknown about the impacts of
research on sage-grouse population dynamics. However, the available
information indicates that very few individuals are disturbed or die as
a result of handling and marking. Therefore, the potential impacts
associated with scientific and educational uses are considered
negligible to the Bi-State DPS at this time and are expected to remain
so into the future. See the ``Scientific and Educational Uses'' section
of the Species Report for further discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 90-
92).

Pesticides and Herbicides

Although few studies have examined the effects of pesticides to
sage-grouse, direct mortality of sage-grouse as a result of pesticide
applications (such as insecticides and pesticides applied via cropland
spraying) has been documented (Blus et al. 1989, p. 1142; Blus and
Connelly 1998, p. 23) (Factor E). In addition, herbicide applications
can kill sagebrush and forbs important as food sources for sage-grouse
(Carr 1968, as cited in Call and Maser 1985, p. 14) (Factor E).
Although pesticides and herbicides can result in direct and indirect
mortality of individual sage-grouse, we are unaware of information that
would indicate that the current usage or residue from past applications
in the Bi-State area is having negative impacts on populations, nor do
we anticipate that the levels of use will increase in the future.
Therefore, the potential impacts associated with pesticide and
herbicide use are considered negligible to the Bi-State DPS at this
time, and are expected to remain so into the future. See the
``Pesticides and Herbicides'' section of the Species Report for further
discussion (Service 2013a, pp. 110-112).

Contaminants

Sage-grouse exposure to various types of environmental contaminants
(concentrated salts, petroleum products, or other industrial chemicals)
may occur as a result of agricultural and rangeland management
practices, mining, energy development and pipeline operations, and
transportation of hazardous materials along highways and railroads. In
the Bi-State area, exposure to contaminants associated with mining is
the most likely to occur (see Mining, above). Exposure to contaminated
water in wastewater pits or evaporation ponds could cause mortalities
or an increased incidence of sage-grouse disease (morbidity) (Factor
E). Within the Bi-State DPS, sage-grouse exposure to potential
contaminants is currently limited and most likely associated with a few
existing mining operations in the Pine Nut and Mount Grant PMUs. Future
impacts from contaminants (if present) would most likely occur in these
same PMUs due to their potential for future mineral development;
however, at this time we are unaware of information to indicate that
contaminants are a problem currently or in the future. Therefore, the
potential impacts associated with contaminants are considered
negligible to the Bi-State DPS at this time, and are expected to remain
so into the future. See the ``Contaminants'' section of the Species
Report for further discussion (Service 2013a, p. 113).

Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

Bi-State sage-grouse conservation has been addressed in some local,
State, and Federal plans, laws, regulations, and policies. An
examination of regulatory mechanisms (Factor D) for both the Bi-State
DPS and sagebrush habitats reveals that some mechanisms exist that
either provide or have the potential to provide a conservation benefit
to the Bi-State DPS, such as (but not limited to): Various County or
City regulations outlined in General Plans; Nevada State Executive
Order, dated September 26, 2008; Federal Land Policy and Management Act
of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.), which requires development of
resource management plans for BLM lands; National Forest Management Act
(16 U.S.C. 1600 et seq.), which requires land and resource management
plans for U.S. Forest Service lands; and the Sikes Act Improvement Act
of 1997 (16 U.S.C. 670a et seq.), which requires integrated natural
resources management plans for military installations (see ``Existing
Regulatory Mechanisms'' section of the Species Report (Service 2013a,
pp. 113-127)). However, supporting documents for some of these are many
years old and have not been updated, calling into question their
consistency with our current understanding of the DPS's life-history
requirements, reaction to disturbances, and the DPS's conservation
needs. In addition, the conservation actions that have been implemented
to date according to the existing regulatory mechanisms vary across the
Bi-State area, although managing agencies are beginning to work more
collaboratively across jurisdictional boundaries. The degree to which
these existing regulatory mechanisms conserve the DPS is largely
dependent on current and future implementation, which can vary
depending on factors such as the availability of staff and funding.
The Bi-State area is largely comprised of federally managed lands.
Existing land use plans, as they pertain to sage-grouse, are typically
general in nature and afford relatively broad latitude to land
managers. This latitude influences whether measures available to affect
conservation of greater sage-grouse are incorporated during decision
making, and implementation is prone to change based on managerial
discretion. While we recognize the benefits of management flexibility,
we also recognize that such flexibility with regard to implementation
of land use plans can result in land use decisions that negatively
affect the Bi-State DPS. Therefore, we consider most existing Federal
mechanisms offer limited certainty as to managerial direction
pertaining to sage-grouse conservation, particularly as the Federal
mechanisms relate to addressing the threats that are significantly
impacting the Bi-State DPS (i.e., nonnative and native, invasive
plants; wildfire and altered wildfire regime; infrastructure; and
rangeland management), and other impacts (such as, but not limited to,
renewable energy development). Regulations in some counties identify
the need for natural resource conservation and attempt to minimize
impacts of development through zoning restrictions, but to our
knowledge these regulations neither preclude development nor do they
provide for monitoring of the loss of sage-grouse habitats. Similarly,
State laws and regulations are general in nature and provide
flexibility in implementation, and do not provide specific direction to
State wildlife agencies, although they can occasionally afford
regulatory authority over habitat preservation (e.g., creation of
habitat easements and land acquisitions).

Synergistic Impacts

Many of the impacts described here and in the accompanying Species
Report may cumulatively or synergistically affect the Bi-State DPS
beyond the scope of each individual stressor. For example, the future
loss of additional significant sagebrush habitat due to wildfire in the
Bi-State DPS is anticipated because of the intensifying synergistic
interactions among fire, people and infrastructure, invasive

[[Page 64373]]

species, and climate change. Predation may also increase as a result of
the increase in human disturbance and development. These are just two
scenarios of the numerous threats that are likely acting cumulatively
to further contribute to the challenges faced by many Bi-State DPS
populations now and into the future.
In summary, we have determined that the threats causing the most
significant impacts on the Bi-State DPS currently and in the future are
urbanization and habitat conversion (Factor A); infrastructure (Factors
A and E); mining (Factors A and E); renewable energy development and
associated infrastructure (Factors A and E); grazing (Factors A, C, and
E); nonnative and native, invasive species (e.g., cheatgrass, pinyon-
juniper encroachment) (Factors A and E); wildfires and altered fire
regime (Factors A and E); and small population size and population
structure (Factor E). Other threats impacting the DPS across its range
currently and in the future, but to a lesser degree than those listed
above, include climate change, including drought (Factors A and E);
recreation (Factors A and E); and disease and predation (Factor B).
Existing regulatory mechanisms are inadequate to protect the Bi-State
DPS against these threats (Factor D). Numerous threats are likely
acting cumulatively to further contribute to the challenges faced by
several Bi-State DPS populations now and into the future.

Determination

We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial
information available regarding the past, present, and future threats
to the Bi-State DPS. We considered the five factors identified in
section 4(a)(1) of the Act in determining whether the Bi-State DPS
meets the Act's definition of an endangered species (section 3(6)) or
threatened species (section 3(20)).
Multiple threats impacting the Bi-State DPS and its habitat are
interacting synergistically and resulting in increasingly fragmented
habitat for this long-lived habitat specialist. Woodland encroachment
is causing significant, measurable habitat loss throughout the range of
the Bi-State DPS. While techniques to address this habitat impact are
available and being implemented, the scale of such efforts is currently
inadequate. Woodlands have expanded by an estimated 20,234 to 60,703 ha
(50,000 to 150,000 ac) over the past decade in the Bi-State area, but
woodland treatments have only been implemented on 6,475 ha (16,000 ac)
(Service 2013b, unpublished data). Meanwhile, the existing and
potential near-term impacts of cheatgrass and wildfire are steadily
increasing and will likely escalate further with climate change,
providing conditions that will likely result in rapid loss of
significant quantities of suitable habitat. Similarly, impacts from
infrastructure, urbanization, and recreation on already fragmented
habitat and small populations within the Bi-State area are expected to
gradually increase.
Taken cumulatively, the ongoing and future habitat-based impacts in
all PMUs will likely act to fragment and further isolate populations
within the Bi-State DPS. Current or future impacts caused by wildfire,
urbanization, grazing, infrastructure, recreation, woodland succession,
and climate change will likely persist and interact in the near-term
and most significantly influence the Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, and
Mount Grant PMUs. The Bodie and South Mono PMUs are larger and more
stable, and generally have fewer habitat pressures. The level of
impacts within the White Mountains PMU remains largely unknown; the
population is likely relatively small, and it is on the southern
periphery of the DPS. While the South Mono, White Mountains, and Pine
Nut PMUs appear to be largely isolated entities, the Bodie PMU
interacts with the Mount Grant PMU and to a lesser degree the Desert
Creek-Fales PMU, and the potential erosion of habitat suitability in
these latter PMUs may influence the population dynamics and persistence
of the breeding population in the Bodie PMU.
When existing and future impacts such as predation, disease,
recreation, and climate change (vegetation changes, drought) are
considered in conjunction with other habitat stressors, it appears that
preservation of sage-grouse populations in the northern half of the Bi-
State area will be difficult. Given the Bi-State DPS's relatively low
rate of growth and strong site fidelity, recovery and repopulation of
extirpated areas will be slow and infrequent, making future recovery of
extirpated populations within the Bi-State area challenging.
Translocation of sage-grouse is difficult, and given the limited number
of source individuals within the range of the Bi-State DPS,
translocation efforts, if needed, will be logistically complicated.
Within the next several decades, it is possible that sage-grouse in the
Bi-State area will persist in two of the potentially eight populations
in the Bi-State area, specifically two populations located in the South
Mono PMU (Long Valley) and the Bodie PMU (Bodie Hills). These two
populations could also become increasingly further isolated from one
another as a result of the potential for loss of habitat connectivity
due to exurban development on private lands in the Bodie PMU, as well
as future habitat fragmentation from potential pinyon-juniper
encroachment, wildfire, and cheatgrass impacts. If further isolated, it
is likely that both these populations would be at greater risk to
stochastic events.
In summary, we believe the Bi-State DPS is likely to become
endangered within the foreseeable future throughout all or a portion of
its range based on the following:
(1) A reduction of historical range, and a reduction in habitat of
greater than 50 percent with a concurrent reduction from historical
abundance of greater than 50 percent. The current trend in habitat loss
is slow and expected to continue at this slow pace, further reducing
range and habitat. The current trend in abundance is unknown, but it is
expected to gradually decrease for at least five of the six PMUs. This
is of critical concern to the Bi-State DPS because fluctuations in the
four small, less secure PMUs are likely to result in extirpations and
loss of population redundancy within the DPS.
(2) All six PMUs include poor connectivity within and among PMUs;
the current trend in connectivity is slowly deteriorating, and this is
of critical concern to the Bi-State DPS because it increases the risk
of loss of individual PMUs via stochastic events.
(3) Remaining habitat is increasingly fragmented in all six PMUs;
the current trend in habitat fragmentation is a slow increase.
(4) Trends for most leks are unknown, especially on periphery of
the Bi-State DPS's range. This is of critical concern to the DPS
because there is an existing pattern of historical extirpations of
peripheral populations for the sage-grouse in the Bi-State area. Well
known leks in the core of the DPS's range that have remained protected
over time and have long-term monitoring data suggest stable population
trends.
(5) The size of the Bi-State population is generally below
theoretical minimums for long-term persistence reported in literature;
populations are especially small and increasingly isolated outside the
two largest (core) populations in the South Mono and Bodie PMUs. Recent
extensive and intensive surveys for the Bi-State population range-wide
did not significantly increase the known number of leks or individuals.
(6) Sage grouse are long-lived habitat specialists particularly
susceptible to

[[Page 64374]]

habitat fragmentation caused by multiple, interacting threats, and
there are multiple threats to habitat interacting synergistically
throughout the Bi-State population.
(7) Pinyon-juniper tree encroachment has caused significant habitat
reduction; the current trend in pinyon-juniper encroachment is
increasing, but mitigated partially by ongoing woodland removal
projects.
(8) Urbanization is documented to have caused significant habitat
reduction; the current trend in urbanization is increasing but slowly.
(9) Infrastructure development (e.g., roads, power lines, fences,
communication towers) is documented to have caused significant habitat
reductions (although some impacts are being mitigated by ongoing
removal of potential avian predator roost sites and modification or
removal of fencing); the current trend in this threat is increasing but
slowly.
(10) The fire-invasive species cycle destroys native plant
communities and sage grouse habitat; the current trend in sagebrush
habitat loss from fire and invasive species is increasing.
(11) Small population size and meta-population isolation increases
risk to sage-grouse; the current trend in the Bi-State area for small,
isolated populations is gradually increasing. This is of critical
concern to the Bi-State DPS because fluctuations in the four small,
less secure PMUs are likely to result in extirpations and loss of
population redundancy within the DPS.
(12) Predation can locally impact sage-grouse in specific
circumstances, such as that occurring in the South Mono PMU near a
landfill, which is likely impacting one of the two largest, core
populations for the Bi-State DPS; however, the current trend in
predation is stable.
(13) There is uncertainty over long-term threats from climate
change and its effects on other factors like invasive species; it is
probable that the threat of climate change will increase in the
foreseeable future.
The Act defines an endangered species as any species that is ``in
danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its
range'' and a threatened species as any species ``that is likely to
become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range
within the foreseeable future.'' We consider foreseeable future in this
proposed rule to be 30 years based on the probability of population
persistence analyzed and described by Garton et al. (2011, entire),
which conducted a trend analysis for the populations that occur in the
Bodie, Desert Creek-Fales, and South Mono PMUs. Garton et al. (2011,
entire) conclude that the probability of declining below a quasi-
extinction threshold (as defined by some scientific experts to be fewer
than 50 males per population) was 15 percent over the next 30 years for
the populations in Bodie and Desert Creek-Fales PMUs, and 0 percent for
the populations in the South Mono PMU. In other words, populations in
the Bodie, Desert Creek-Fales, and South Mono PMUs have a probability
of persistence between 85 and 100 percent over the next 30 years. Data
quality was inadequate or unavailable for the populations within the
Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs for Garton's (2011,
entire) analysis for population persistence. Because populations for
these PMUs harbor fewer individuals and thus smaller populations than
those analyzed by Garton et al. (2011, entire), we expect the
populations in these areas within the next 30 years to have an
undetermined lower probability of persistence. Data quality was
inadequate or unavailable on a longer time frame for all units.
Based on the analysis presented in the Species Report (Service
2013a, entire), and our discussion and rationale provided above, we
find that the Bi-State DPS is not presently in danger of extinction
throughout all of its range, but that it is likely to become endangered
throughout all of its range in the foreseeable future. First, we find
that the Bi-State DPS is not presently in danger of extinction based on
the following:
(1) The Bi-State DPS populations will likely persist in multiple
areas within the range of the DPS into the foreseeable future (as
defined above). Predictions indicate the Bodie, Desert Creek-Fales, and
South Mono PMU populations have an 85 (Bodie and Desert Creek-Fales
PMUs) to 100 (South Mono PMU) percent chance of persistence over the
next 30 years. The Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains
populations have an undetermined lesser percent chance of persistence.
(2) The best available data for the Bi-State DPS indicate stable or
increasing trends for the two largest populations that represent the
central core of the DPS.
(3) Because the Bi-State DPS is characterized by multiple
populations, some of which are likely to remain in place within the
foreseeable future, these populations provide sufficient redundancy
(multiple populations distributed across the landscape), resiliency
(capacity for a species to recover from periodic disturbance), and
representation (range of variation found in a species) such that the
Bi-State DPS is not at immediate risk of extinction (i.e., within the
foreseeable future). Although data are unavailable for accurately
predicting persistence of populations within three of the six PMUs
within the foreseeable future, our evaluation of the best available
information leads us to believe that only one population (i.e., the
smallest population within the Pine Nut PMU) might not persist into the
foreseeable future.
Second, we find that the Bi-State DPS is likely to become
endangered throughout all of its range in the foreseeable future based
on the following:
(1) Multiple threats are significantly impacting all of the Bi-
State DPS populations (i.e., infrastructure; grazing and rangeland
management; nonnative and native, invasive plants; wildfire and altered
fire regime; and small population size).
(2) Additive and synergistic effects due to the threats listed
above as well as other multiple threats (i.e., urbanization and habitat
conversion, mining, renewable energy development, climate (including
drought), recreation, disease, and predation) are likely to continue
and increase in the future. Of significant concern are the compounding
impacts to the Bi-State DPS's habitat that are interacting and
resulting in increasingly fragmented habitat, especially from pinyon-
juniper encroachment throughout the DPS's range.
(3) Current or future impacts identified above will likely persist
and interact in the near-term, most significantly affecting the
populations and habitat in the Pine Nut, Desert Creek-Fales, and Mount
Grant PMUs (while the level of impacts within the White Mountains PMU
remains largely unknown). Thus, the potential exists for one or more of
the populations in these PMUs to be lost or impacted to such a degree
that recovery would be significantly challenged. The two largest (core)
populations (i.e., the South Mono PMU (Long Valley) and the Bodie PMU
(Bodie Hills)) could also become isolated from one another as a result
of the potential for loss of habitat connectivity due to exurban
development on private lands in the Bodie PMU, as well as future
habitat fragmentation from potential pinyon-juniper encroachment,
wildfire, and cheatgrass impacts. Once further isolated, it is likely
that both core PMUs would be at greater risk to stochastic events.

[[Page 64375]]

Therefore, on the basis of the best available scientific and
commercial information, we propose listing the Bi-State DPS of greater
sage-grouse as threatened in accordance with sections 3(20) and 4(a)(1)
of the Act.
The Bi-State DPS proposed for listing in this rule is highly
restricted in its range and the threats occur throughout its range.
Therefore, we assessed the status of the Bi-State DPS throughout its
entire range. The threats to the survival of the DPS occur throughout
its range and are not restricted to any particular significant portion
of that range (see Significant Portion of the Range, below).
Accordingly, our assessment and proposed determination applies to the
Bi-State DPS throughout its entire range.

Significant Portion of the Range

Under the Act and our implementing regulations, a species may
warrant listing if it is endangered or threatened throughout all or a
significant portion of its range. In determining whether a species is
endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range, we
first identify any portions of the range of the species that warrant
further consideration. The range of a species can theoretically be
divided into portions an infinite number of ways. However, there is no
purpose to analyzing portions of the range that are not reasonably
likely to be both (1) significant and (2) endangered or threatened. To
identify only those portions that warrant further consideration, we
determine whether there is substantial information indicating that: (1)
The portions may be significant, and (2) the species may be in danger
of extinction there or likely to become so within the foreseeable
future. In practice, a key part of this analysis is whether the threats
are geographically concentrated in some way. If the threats to the
species are essentially uniform throughout its range, no portion is
likely to warrant further consideration. Moreover, if any concentration
of threats applies only to portions of the species' range that are not
significant, such portions will not warrant further consideration.
If we identify portions that warrant further consideration, we then
determine whether the species is endangered or threatened in these
portions of its range. Depending on the biology of the species, its
range, and the threats it faces, the Service may address either the
significance question or the status question first. Thus, if the
Service considers significance first and determines that a portion of
the range is not significant, the Service need not determine whether
the species is endangered or threatened there. Likewise, if the Service
considers status first and determines that the species is not
endangered or threatened in a portion of its range, the Service need
not determine if that portion is significant. However, if the Service
determines that both a portion of the range of a species is significant
and the species is endangered or threatened there, the Service will
specify that portion of the range as endangered or threatened under
section 4(c)(1) of the Act.
We evaluated the current range of the Bi-State DPS to determine if
there is any apparent geographic concentration of threats. The Bi-State
DPS is highly restricted in its range and the threats occur to varying
degrees and in various combinations throughout its range. We considered
the potential threats due to nonnative and native, invasive plants;
wildfire and an altered fire regime; infrastructure (including roads,
power lines, fences, communication towers, and landfills); grazing and
rangeland management; small population size; urbanization and habitat
conversion; mining; renewable energy development; disease; predation;
climate change (including drought); recreation; overutilization;
scientific and educational uses; pesticides and herbicides;
contaminants; and potential inadequacy of existing regulatory
mechanisms. However, we found no concentration of threats but rather
that various combinations of multiple threats are present throughout
the range of the Bi-State DPS.
Given the sage-grouse populations in the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and
White Mountains PMUs are now and will continue to be most at risk from
the various threats acting upon the birds and their habitat (see the
foreseeable future discussion above in the Determination section), we
identify this portion of the range for further consideration. The Pine
Nut, Mount Grant, and (to the extent known) White Mountains PMUs
comprise the least amount of birds and leks within the range of the Bi-
State DPS, with the Pine Nut PMU harboring the least number of birds
and leks overall.
We analyzed whether threats in these three PMUs (i.e., Pine Nut,
Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs) rise to the level such that the
sage-grouse is currently in danger of extinction, or ``endangered,'' in
these three PMUs combined. We determined that none of the threats
within these three PMUs either independently or collectively, is
believed to be of the level that the threats have reduced, destroyed,
or fragmented sagebrush habitat such that the DPS is currently in
danger of extinction. We note that data do indicate that impacts from
nonnative and native, invasive species, and thus the threat of
wildfire, in the Pine Nut PMU are more extensive than in the Mount
Grant and White Mountains PMUs. While these threats continue in the
Pine Nut PMU and may increase, monitoring continues to document sage-
grouse in some historically occupied areas within the PMU. Also, the
Pine Nut PMU currently holds the least number of birds and leks of all
populations, and the potential loss of this already small population is
not expected to impact the Bi-State DPS to the extent that the
remaining two PMUs with the smallest populations (i.e., Mount Grant and
White Mountains PMUs) or the DPS as a whole would be considered in
danger of extinction.
Because multiple sage-grouse are still observed through monitoring
activities, and from one to eight active leks are present within each
of these three smaller populations (within the Pine Nut, Mount Grant,
and White Mountains PMUs), we do not believe the combined sage-grouse
populations in all three of these PMUs are currently in danger of
becoming extinct. Additionally, the threats acting upon these small
populations are not geographically concentrated and exist in all six
PMUs throughout the range of the Bi-State DPS. Rather, the combination
of the small population size, isolation due to fragmented habitat,
peripheral locations, and the presence of several threats to the
populations in the Pine Nut, Mount Grant, and White Mountains PMUs
makes these populations more vulnerable than the populations in the
Bodie, Desert Creek-Fales, and South Mono PMUs but not to the degree
that they are in danger of extinction.
In conclusion, we find that the overall scope and significance of
threats affecting the Bi-State DPS are essentially uniform throughout
the DPS's range, indicating no other portion of the range of the DPS
warrants further consideration of possible endangered status under the
Act. Therefore, we find there is no significant portion of the Bi-State
DPS's range that may warrant a different status.

Available Conservation Measures

Conservation measures provided to species listed as endangered or
threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
practices. Recognition through listing results in public awareness, and
conservation by Federal, State, Tribal, and local

[[Page 64376]]

agencies; private organizations; and individuals. The Act encourages
cooperation with the States and requires that recovery actions be
carried out for all listed species. The protection required by Federal
agencies and the prohibitions against certain activities are discussed,
in part, below.
The primary purpose of the Act is the conservation of endangered
and threatened species and the ecosystems upon which they depend. The
ultimate goal of such conservation efforts is the recovery of these
listed species so that they no longer need the protective measures of
the Act. Subsection 4(f) of the Act requires the Service to develop and
implement recovery plans for the conservation of endangered and
threatened species. The recovery planning process involves the
identification of actions that are necessary to halt or reverse the
species' decline by addressing the threats to its survival and
recovery. The goal of this process is to restore listed species to a
point where they are secure, self-sustaining, and functioning
components of their ecosystems.
Recovery planning includes the development of a recovery outline
shortly after a species is listed and preparation of a draft and final
recovery plan. The recovery outline guides the immediate implementation
of urgent recovery actions and describes the process to be used to
develop a recovery plan. Revisions of the plan may be done to address
continuing or new threats to the species, as new substantive
information becomes available. The recovery plan identifies site-
specific management actions that set a trigger for review of the five
factors that control whether a species remains endangered or may be
downlisted or delisted, and methods for monitoring recovery progress.
Recovery plans also establish a framework for agencies to coordinate
their recovery efforts and provide estimates of the cost of
implementing recovery tasks. Recovery teams (composed of species
experts, Federal and State agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and
stakeholders) are often established to develop recovery plans. When
completed, the recovery outline, draft recovery plan, and the final
recovery plan will be available on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/endangered), or from our Nevada Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR
FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Implementation of recovery actions generally requires the
participation of a broad range of partners, including other Federal
agencies, States, Tribes, nongovernmental organizations, businesses,
and private landowners. Examples of recovery actions include habitat
restoration (e.g., restoration of native vegetation), research, captive
propagation and reintroduction, and outreach and education. The
recovery of many listed species cannot be accomplished solely on
Federal lands because their range may occur primarily or solely on non-
Federal lands. To achieve recovery of these species requires
cooperative conservation efforts on private, State, and Tribal lands.
If this species is listed, funding for recovery actions will be
available from a variety of sources, including Federal budgets, State
programs, and cost share grants for non-Federal landowners, the
academic community, and nongovernmental organizations. In addition,
pursuant to section 6 of the Act, the States of Nevada and California
would be eligible for Federal funds to implement management actions
that promote the protection or recovery of the Bi-State DPS.
Information on our grant programs that are available to aid species
recovery can be found at: http://www.fws.gov/grants.
Although the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse is only proposed
for listing under the Act at this time, please let us know if you are
interested in participating in recovery efforts for this species.
Additionally, we invite you to submit any new information on this
species whenever it becomes available and any information you may have
for recovery planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).
Section 7(a) of the Act requires Federal agencies to evaluate their
actions with respect to any species that is proposed or listed as an
endangered or threatened species and with respect to its critical
habitat, if any is designated. Regulations implementing this
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR
part 402. Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires Federal agencies to
confer with the Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of a species proposed for listing or result in
destruction or adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a
species is listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of the Act requires
Federal agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or
carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
species or destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a
Federal action may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the
responsible Federal agency must enter into consultation with the
Service.
Federal agency actions within the species' habitat that may require
conference or consultation or both as described in the preceding
paragraph include management and any other landscape-altering
activities on Federal lands administered by the USFS, BLM, or
Department of Defense (Hawthorne Army Depot and Marine Corps' Mountain
Warfare Training Center); issuance of section 404 Clean Water Act (33
U.S.C. 1251 et seq.) permits by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; and
construction and maintenance of roads or highways by the Federal
Highway Administration.
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and
threatened wildlife. The prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act,
codified at 50 CFR 17.21 for endangered wildlife, in part, make it
illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States
to take (includes harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap,
capture, or collect; or to attempt any of these), import, export, ship
in interstate commerce in the course of commercial activity, or sell or
offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce any listed species.
Under the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. 42-43; 16 U.S.C. 3371-3378), it is also
illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such
wildlife that has been taken illegally. Certain exceptions apply to
agents of the Service and State conservation agencies.
We may issue permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving endangered and threatened wildlife species under certain
circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR
17.22 for endangered species, and at 17.32 for threatened species. With
regard to endangered wildlife, a permit must be issued for the
following purposes: for scientific purposes, to enhance the propagation
or survival of the species, and for incidental take in connection with
otherwise lawful activities.
It is our policy, as published in the Federal Register on July 1,
1994 (59 FR 34272), to identify to the maximum extent practicable at
the time a species is listed, those activities that would or would not
constitute a violation of section 9 of the Act. The intent of this
policy is to increase public awareness of the effect of a proposed
listing on proposed and ongoing activities within the range of species
proposed for listing. The following activities could potentially result
in a violation of section 9 of the Act; this list is not comprehensive:
(1) Unauthorized collecting, handling, possessing, selling,
delivering, carrying, or transporting of the species, including import
or export across State lines and

[[Page 64377]]

international boundaries, except for properly documented antique
specimens of these taxa at least 100 years old, as defined by section
10(h)(1) of the Act.
(2) Actions that would result in the loss of sagebrush overstory
plant cover or height. Such activities could include, but are not
limited to, the removal of native shrub vegetation by any means for any
development or infrastructure construction project; direct conversion
of sagebrush habitat to agricultural land use; habitat improvement or
restoration projects involving mowing, brush-beating, disking, plowing,
chemical treatments, or prescribed burning; and prescribed burning and
fire suppression activities.
(3) Actions that would result in the loss or reduction in native
herbaceous understory plant cover or height, a reduction or loss of
associated arthropod communities, or ground disturbance that would
result in removal or depletion of surface and ground water resources
that impact brood-rearing habitat. Such activities could include, but
are not limited to: Livestock grazing; application of herbicides or
insecticides; prescribed burning and fire suppression activities;
seeding of nonnative plant species that would compete with native
species for water, nutrients, and space; groundwater pumping; and water
diversions for irrigation and livestock watering.
(4) Actions that would result in the Bi-State DPS's avoidance of an
area during one or more seasonal periods. Such activities could
include, but are not limited to, the construction of vertical
structures such as power lines, fences, communication towers, and
buildings; motorized and non-motorized recreational use; and activities
such as mining or well drilling, operation, and maintenance, which
would entail significant human presence, noise, and infrastructure.
Questions regarding whether specific activities would constitute a
violation of section 9 of the Act should be directed to the Nevada Fish
and Wildlife Office for activities in Nevada and to the Ventura Fish
and Wildlife Office for activities in California (see FOR FURTHER
INFORMATION CONTACT).

Proposed Special Rule

Under section 4(d) of the Act, the Secretary of the Interior has
discretion to issue such regulations as she deems necessary and
advisable to provide for the conservation of threatened species. Our
implementing regulations (50 CFR 17.31) for threatened wildlife
generally incorporate the prohibitions of section 9 of the Act for
endangered wildlife, except when a ``special rule'' is promulgated
under section 4(d) of the Act with respect to a particular threatened
species. In such a case, the general prohibitions at 50 CFR 17.31 would
not apply to that species; instead, the special rule would define the
specific take prohibitions and exceptions that would apply, and that we
consider necessary and advisable to conserve, that particular
threatened species. The Secretary also has the discretion to prohibit
by regulation with respect to a threatened species any act prohibited
by section 9(a)(1) of the Act. Exercising this discretion, which has
been delegated to the Service by the Secretary, the Service has
developed general prohibitions that are appropriate for most threatened
wildlife at 50 CFR 17.31 and exceptions to those prohibitions at 50 CFR
17.32.
For the Bi-State DPS, we have determined that a 4(d) special rule
may be appropriate. This 4(d) special rule is proposed for take
incidental to activities conducted pursuant to either: (1) Conservation
programs developed by or in coordination with the State agency or
agencies responsible for the management and conservation of fish and
wildlife within Nevada and California, or their agents, with a clear
mechanism for application to lands occupied by the Bi-State DPS; or (2)
routine livestock ranching activities conducted in a manner congruous
with maintaining the local ecological integrity. Both conservation
programs and maintenance of large blocks of intact habitat provide a
conservation benefit to the Bi-State DPS. When making a determination
as to whether a program would be covered pursuant to this 4(d) rule, we
would consider the following:
(1) Whether the program comprehensively addresses all the threats
affecting the Bi-State DPS within the program area;
(2) Whether the program establishes objective, measurable
biological goals and objectives for population and habitat necessary to
ensure a net conservation benefit, and provides the mechanisms by which
those goals and objectives will be achieved;
(3) Whether the program administrators demonstrate the capability
and funding mechanisms for effectively implementing all elements of the
conservation program, including enrollment of participating landowners,
monitoring of program activities, and enforcement of program
requirements;
(4) Whether the program employs an adaptive management strategy to
ensure future program adaptation as necessary and appropriate; and
(5) Whether the program includes appropriate monitoring of
effectiveness and compliance.
As discussed elsewhere in this proposed rule, the Bi-State DPS
faces many threats. Foremost among these is the continuing loss and
degradation of habitat, which further fragment and isolate already
small populations. The Service proposes this 4(d) special rule in
recognition of the significant conservation planning efforts occurring
throughout the range of the Bi-State DPS for the purpose of reducing or
eliminating threats affecting the DPS. Multiple partners (including
private citizens, nongovernmental organizations, and Federal and State
agencies) are engaged in conservation efforts across the entire range
of the DPS on public and private lands, and these efforts have provided
and will continue to provide a conservation benefit to the DPS. Two
recent examples of conservation programs in the Bi-State area are the
Bi-State Action Plan, which was finalized on March 15, 2012, and
addresses the entire range of the DPS on public and private lands; and
the NRCS's Sage-Grouse Initiative (SGI). Efforts associated with both
programs will facilitate conservation benefits in the Bi-State area,
and these programs will continue to provide conservation benefits to
the DPS into the future. Currently, existing programs do not yet fully
address the suite of factors contributing to cumulative habitat loss
and fragmentation, which is our primary concern across the Bi-State
DPS's range. However, the Bi-State Action Plan, if completely refined
and fully implemented, may result in the removal of threats to the Bi-
State DPS so that the protections of the Act may no longer be
warranted, especially in combination with other actions, including
Federal land management agencies' ongoing efforts to ensure regulatory
mechanisms are adequate for the DPS.
Conservation efforts occurring across the range of the Bi-State DPS
include, but are not limited to:
Limiting infrastructure development and human disturbance
in sage-grouse habitat;
Removing woodland plant species that encroach upon
sagebrush habitats absent sufficient disturbance to maintain the
sagebrush habitat;
Managing wildfire and invasive species to limit the
occurrence of large, high-intensity fire, and fire that facilitates the
dominance of invasive species such as cheatgrass;

[[Page 64378]]

Protecting private lands as sagebrush habitat through
purchase or conservation easement;
Managing feral horses in a manner that maintains natural
ecosystem functions and avoids facilitating the dominance of
cheatgrass;
Managing and restoring wet meadow and upland habitats to
provide important functions for all life stages of sage-grouse;
Protecting against risks associated with small population
size;
Monitoring and addressing disease and predation threats;
and
Conducting research and monitoring actions, and adapting
management accordingly.
The proposed criteria presented here are meant to encourage the
continued development and implementation of a coordinated and
comprehensive effort to improve habitat conditions and the status of
the Bi-State DPS across its entire range. For the Service to approve
coverage of a conservation effort under this proposed 4(d) special
rule, the program would have to provide a net conservation benefit to
the Bi-State DPS populations. Conservation, as defined in section 3(3)
of the Act, means ``to use and the use of all methods and procedures
which are necessary to bring any endangered species or threatened
species to the point at which the measures provided pursuant to the Act
are no longer necessary.'' The program would also have to be
periodically reviewed by the Service and determined to continue to
provide a net conservation benefit to the Bi-State DPS. As a result of
this proposed provision, the Service expects that rangewide
conservation actions would be implemented with a high level of
certainty that the program will lead to the long-term conservation of
the Bi-State DPS.
Conservation programs associated with restoring and improving
natural ecological conditions have the potential to affect the Bi-State
DPS. Some activities have the potential to positively affect the DPS
(e.g., woodland and meadow treatments intended to maintain habitat
condition in the absence of natural disturbance); however, some of
these activities have the potential to negatively affect the DPS
depending on when and where the activities are conducted (e.g., direct
take from conducting research activities).
While section 9 of the Act provides general prohibitions on
activities that would result in take of a threatened species, the
Service recognizes that the conservation efforts listed above, even
those with the potential to incidentally take Bi-State DPS, may be
necessary to restore the entire range of the DPS to a naturally
functioning condition. The Service also recognizes that it is, in the
long term, a benefit to the Bi-State DPS to maintain, as much as
possible, those aspects of the landscape that can aid in the recovery
of the DPS. We believe this proposed 4(d) special rule would further
conservation of the DPS by enabling restoration and research activities
and by minimizing further subdivision of privately owned lands with the
intent to restore, understand, and protect the entire range of the DPS
to an intact and naturally functioning state.

Conservation Activities To Be Exempted by the Proposed Special Rule

Infrastructure Development and Human Disturbance
In some instances, it may be necessary to install various
infrastructure features (such as, for example, fences to improve
livestock management or a similar barrier to limit access by people
into sensitive locations) in order to obtain management objectives that
benefit the Bi-State DPS. While these developments may negatively
affect the Bi-State DPS by providing perches for predators, increasing
collision risk, and/or causing disturbance during installation, they
have the potential to provide a net benefit to conservation by
protecting sensitive habitats, such as upland meadows and strutting
grounds. In these instances when habitat conservation is the goal, the
Service recognizes the need to install small infrastructure features
and is therefore including these activities in this proposed special
rule. The Service encourages limiting the installation of new
infrastructure in habitat used by the Bi-State DPS. Further, in
instances when placement of these features outside of occupied habitat
cannot occur because it will not achieve management objectives, we
recommend the impact posed by these features be minimized to the
greatest extent possible. This may include timing construction during
periods of sage-grouse absence, using alternative fencing methods
(e.g., let-down or electric fencing), marking fences with visual
markers, and micro-sighting features to minimize impact.
Woodland Treatments
Pinyon-juniper woodlands are a native vegetation community
dominated by pinyon pine and various juniper species. These woodlands
can encroach upon, infill, and eventually replace sagebrush habitat.
The root cause of this conversion from shrubland to woodland is
debatable but variously influenced by livestock grazing, fire
suppression that has altered the natural fire disturbance regime, and
changes in climate and levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide that
influence sites' suitability to tree establishment and tree
competitiveness. Some portions of the Bi-State DPS's range are also
impacted by Pinus jeffreyi (Jeffrey pine) encroachment. Regardless of
the type of woodland encroachment, sage-grouse response is negative,
and forest or woodland encroachment into occupied sage-grouse habitat
reduces (and likely eventually eliminates) sage-grouse use (Commons et
al. 1999, p. 238; Doherty et al. 2008, p. 187; Freese 2009, pp. 84-85,
89-90).
Treatment of sites currently supporting trees with the intent of
restoring the location to a condition dominated by a sagebrush
vegetation community may potentially negatively affect the Bi-State DPS
by disturbing or displacing birds utilizing adjacent habitats or by
disturbing remaining shrub and herbaceous vegetation and soils. The
Service recognizes that it is, in the long-term, a benefit to the DPS
to maintain, as much as possible, those locations currently trending
toward a woodland vegetation community in a shrub-dominated condition.
The Service also recognizes that, in the course of conducting this
conservation program, take of Bi-State DPS may occur. However, the
Service believes the net benefit gained through these actions would
provide significant conservation benefit for the DPS, and is therefore
including these activities in this proposed special rule. The Service
recommends that potential impacts caused by these activities be
minimized by conducting actions during periods when birds are not
present and by using methods that minimize understory disturbance
(e.g., chainsaw) and incorporate appropriate measures to improve native
understory vegetation composition.
Fire and Nonnative Invasive Species Management
Both lightning-caused and human-caused fire in sagebrush ecosystems
is one of the primary risks to the greater sage-grouse, especially as
part of the positive feedback loop between nonnative, invasive annual
grasses and fire frequency. As the replacement of native perennial
bunchgrass communities by invasive annuals is a primary contributing
factor to increasing fire frequencies in the sagebrush ecosystem, every
effort must be made to retain and improve this native plant community.
Fire management activities (i.e., preventing, suppressing, and
restoring) may have a beneficial effect (e.g.,

[[Page 64379]]

limiting amount of sagebrush habitat burned), neutral effect (e.g.,
staging equipment outside of suitable habitat), or negative effect
(e.g., removal of sagebrush to create fire breaks) on the Bi-State DPS.
In order to prevent or minimize the spread of wildfires in rangelands,
there may be a need to construct fire breaks or conduct treatments of
invasive species. If these activities occur in sagebrush habitat, the
potential for take of the Bi-State DPS may occur due to loss of habitat
or displacement of sage-grouse. However, the Service recognizes the
critical importance of fire management in native shrublands, and is
therefore including activities associated with wildfire prevention,
suppression, and restoration in this proposed special rule.
Conservation Easement
A conservation easement is an agreement between a private land
conservation organization or government entity to constrain (in a
specific location) the exercise of rights otherwise held by a landowner
so as to achieve a conservation objective. This tool is being employed
in the Bi-State area, and, typically, the rights constrained are
associated with development and water. For example, a landowner could
agree not to subdivide their property for housing development and not
sell their water rights for offsite use.
Private lands in the Bi-State area are important to the Bi-State
DPS due to the high percentage (up to approximately 75 percent (Service
2013b, unpublished data)) of late brood-rearing habitat that occurs on
private lands, and the importance of maintaining these lands in a
naturally functioning condition for the conservation of the DPS. The
Service recognizes the critical importance of maintaining large,
contiguous patches of sagebrush habitat for the Bi-State DPS and is
including activities associated with procuring conservation easements
in this proposed special rule.
Feral Horse Management
Feral horse presence may negatively affect sagebrush vegetation
communities and habitat suitability for the Bi-State DPS. Feral horses
have utilized sagebrush communities since they were brought to North
America at the end of the 16th century (Wagner 1983, p. 116; Beever
2003, p. 887). Horses are generalists, but seasonally their diets can
be almost entirely grasses (Wagner 1983, pp. 119-120). Areas without
horse grazing can have 1.9 to 2.9 times more grass cover and higher
grass density (Beever et al. 2008, p. 176), whereas sites with horse
grazing have less shrub cover and more fragmented shrub canopies
(Beever et al. 2008, p. 176), less plant diversity, altered soil
characteristics, and 1.6 to 2.6 times greater abundance of cheatgrass
(Beever et al. 2008, pp. 176-177). Therefore, feral horse presence may
negatively affect sagebrush vegetation communities and habitat
suitability for sage-grouse by decreasing grass cover, fragmenting
shrub canopies, altering soil characteristics, decreasing plant
diversity, and increasing the abundance of invasive cheatgrass.
In order to minimize the impact feral horses have on the local
landscape, land-managing agencies (on occasion) remove and relocate
feral horses. These activities may potentially take individual sage-
grouse within the range of the Bi-State DPS. For example, helicopters
used during feral horse round-up and removal activities may disturb and
displace sage-grouse in the immediate vicinity of these activities.
However, the Service recognizes the importance of maintaining feral
horse numbers at appropriate levels such that degradation of habitat is
not realized. Therefore, we are including this conservation program in
this proposed special rule.
Meadow and Upland Restoration
Meadow, riparian, and other mesic habitats are an important
seasonal component in the annual life cycle of sage-grouse. These
locations are used by sage-grouse during the summer and fall, and are a
critical component in population dynamics as they play a significant
role in facilitating recruitment of juvenile birds into the population.
Loss and degradation of these habitats has occurred across the range of
the Bi-State DPS and restoration of these areas will be of significant
importance affecting the conservation of the DPS.
A variety of methods (e.g., mechanical, chemical) may be employed
in the act of restoring these types of habitats depending on the
associated cause of degradation. For example, the hydrologic function
of a site may be compromised due to down-cutting of stream or creek
beds and a meadow (in the absence of disturbance) may become dominated
by shrubs and lose the herbaceous diversity critical to sage-grouse.
Restoration activities associated with these examples may require use
of heavy machinery, mowing, or use of herbicides to remove shrubs.
These activities may potentially take individual sage-grouse within the
Bi-State DPS through disturbance or displacement of birds adjacent to
the activity. However, the Service recognizes the importance of
restoring and maintaining mesic sites such that loss of habitat is not
realized, and we are therefore including this conservation program in
this proposed special rule.
Similarly, restoration efforts for the Bi-State DPS targeting
upland sites may require methods that could displace or disturb sage-
grouse adjacent to the activity. These activities may include
restoration efforts following a fire, or restoration in areas degraded
by grazing or recreational use. However, as with other restoration
activities, the Service recognizes the long-term benefit of these
actions to the conservation of the DPS and is including this
conservation program in this proposed special rule.
Small Population Maintenance and Scientific Research and Monitoring
Within the range of the Bi-State DPS, there are populations of
sage-grouse for which persistence may be challenged, in part due to the
limited number of sage-grouse present. In order to improve redundancy
and distributional extent across the range of the Bi-State DPS, it may
become necessary to capture and relocate sage-grouse in order to
repopulate an extirpated location or to augment a small population. The
capture and relocation of sage-grouse may potentially take individuals
due to capture-related mortality. However, the Service recognizes the
importance of multiple, well-distributed populations across the range
of the Bi-State DPS in order to ensure the conservation of the DPS.
Therefore, we consider the potential conservation benefit gained
through this effort, should it become necessary, to be a net gain and
are therefore including this conservation effort in this proposed
special rule.
Similarly, scientific research and monitoring activities of the Bi-
State DPS have the potential to take sage-grouse through capture and
handling mortalities or through disturbing or displacing breeding sage-
grouse on leks. During a 3-year study in the Bi-State area in which 145
sage-grouse were radio-marked, the deaths of 4 birds were attributed to
handling (Casazza et al. 2009, p. 45). Across the West, the mortality
rate associated with capture, handling, and subsequent marking was
estimated at 2.7 percent in 2005 (see 75 FR 13910 on March 23, 2010,
pp. 13965-13966). While direct mortality of sage-grouse can occur, the
Service considers the level of impact to be negligible and further
considers the information gained through these efforts to be a
significant benefit to the conservation of the DPS. We are therefore
including scientific

[[Page 64380]]

investigations (including annual lek monitoring activity) in this
proposed special rule.
Routine Livestock Ranching and Agricultural Activities
Livestock ranching is a dynamic process, which requires the ability
to adapt to changing environmental and economic conditions. However,
many of the activities essential to successful ranching are considered
routine and are undertaken at various times and places throughout the
year as need dictates. Although this proposed special rule is not
intended to provide a comprehensive list of those ranching activities
considered routine, examples include (but are not limited to): Grazing
management; planting, harvest, and rotation of forage crops;
maintenance and construction of corrals, ranch buildings, fences, and
roads; discing of field sections for fire prevention management;
control of noxious weeds by prescribed fire or by herbicides; placement
of mineral supplements and water developments; and removal of trees in
rangelands.
Routine activities associated with livestock ranching have the
potential to affect the Bi-State DPS. Some routine activities have the
potential to positively affect the DPS (e.g., maintaining irrigated
pasture, brood-rearing habitats), while other activities may be neutral
with respect to the DPS (e.g., constructing ranch buildings in areas
unsuitable for sage-grouse foraging or movement). However, other
routine ranching activities have the potential to negatively affect the
DPS depending on when and where the activities are conducted (e.g.,
direct take from harvesting pasture hay).
While section 9 of the Act provides general prohibitions on
activities that would result in take of a threatened species, the
Service recognizes that routine ranching activities, even those with
the potential to incidentally take the Bi-State DPS, may be necessary
components of livestock operations. The Service also recognizes that it
is, in the long term, a benefit to the Bi-State DPS to maintain (as
much as possible) those aspects of the ranching landscape that can aid
in the recovery of the DPS. We believe this proposed special rule would
further conservation of the Bi-State DPS by discouraging further
conversions of the ranching landscape into habitats entirely unsuitable
for the DPS, and encouraging landowners and ranchers to continue
managing the remaining landscape in ways that meet the needs of their
operation and that provide suitable habitat for the Bi-State DPS.

Routine Livestock Ranching Activities That Would Be Exempted by the
Proposed Special Rule

The activities mentioned above and discussed below are merely
examples of routine ranching activities that would be exempted by the
proposed special rule. Routine activities may vary from one ranching
operation to another, and vary with changing environmental and economic
conditions. Routine ranching activities include the activities
described below and any others that a rancher may undertake to maintain
a sustainable ranching operation. Our premise for not attempting to
regulate routine activities is that, ultimately, we believe that a
rancher acting in the best interest of maintaining a sustainable
ranching operation also is providing incidental but significant
conservation benefits for the Bi-State DPS.
In this proposed special rule, we describe and recommend best
management practices for carrying out routine ranching activities in
ways that would minimize take of the Bi-State DPS, but we would not
require these practices. Overall, we believe that minimizing the
regulatory restrictions on routine ranching activities would increase
the likelihood that more landowners would voluntarily allow the Bi-
State DPS to persist or increase on their private lands, and that the
benefits of maintaining a rangeland landscape where sage-grouse can
coexist with a ranching operation far outweigh the impacts to the DPS
from such activities.
Sustainable Livestock Grazing. The act of grazing livestock on
rangelands in a sustainable manner (i.e., is consistent with and
maintains local ecological conditions) has the potential for take of
the Bi-State DPS. Grazing livestock in areas occupied by sage-grouse
may cause nest destruction or abandonment, or influence nesting success
by removing cover surrounding a nest site (Hagen et al. 2007, p. 46;
Coates et al. 2008, pp. 425-426). Unmanaged livestock grazing
(overgrazing) also compacts soils, decreases herbaceous abundance,
increases soil erosion, and increases the probability of invasion of
nonnative, invasive plant species (Braun 1998, p. 147; Dobkin et al.
1998, p. 213; Reisner et al. 2013, p. 10). Livestock management and
associated infrastructure (such as water developments and fencing) can
degrade important nesting and brood-rearing habitat for the Bi-State
DPS, as well as facilitate the spread of WNv.
By contrast, sustainable grazing can be neutral or even beneficial
to the Bi-State DPS in several ways. Grazing by sheep and goats has
been used strategically in sage-grouse habitat to control invasive
weeds (Merritt et al. 2001, p. 4; Olsen and Wallander 2001, p. 30;
Connelly et al. 2004, p. 7-49) and woody plant encroachment (Riggs and
Urness 1989, p. 358). Furthermore, Evans (1986, p. 67) reported that
sage-grouse used grazed meadows significantly more during late summer
because grazing had stimulated the regrowth of forbs, and Klebenow
(1982, p. 121) noted that sage-grouse used openings in meadows created
by cattle. Also, in the absence of natural meadow habitat, sage-grouse
utilize irrigated pasture during late summer/brood-rearing period;
these created habitats are of significant importance to population
persistence in the Nevada portion of the Bi-State area.
The greatest benefit to the Bi-State DPS provided by working
ranches is likely found in the retention of large, contiguous blocks of
native shrubland. Frequently, as ranch properties are sold, these
native shrublands are divided and converted to nonagricultural uses,
such as low density housing developments. This has and continues to
occur in the Bi-State area, most notably in the Pine Nut and Desert
Creek-Fales PMUs. Therefore, we consider the potential benefits of
sustainable livestock grazing, according to normally acceptable and
established levels of intensity to prevent overgrazing, to provide
justification for including this routine activity in this proposed
special rule.
Planting, Harvest, and Rotation of Forage Crops
In the Bi-State area, irrigated pasture associated with livestock
operations is the principle form of agricultural land conversions.
Producers plant and harvest these sites periodically from early summer
to early fall. During the course of the activities, take of the Bi-
State DPS may potentially occur if sage-grouse are killed by farm
machinery or disturbed and displaced from the field. However, in some
portions of the Bi-State DPS's range, these irrigated pastures play an
important role in the sage-grouse's annual life cycle as these
locations, at times, act as brood-rearing habitat in the absence of
natural meadows. Therefore, the Service considers maintenance of these
sites a net benefit for the DPS, and we are therefore including
activities associated with maintaining pastures in this proposed
special rule.
As these irrigated pastures may be used by young-of-the-year sage-
grouse within the Bi-State area, and potentially at a time when birds
are still incapable of flight, we recommend that timing of harvest
activity be delayed to the

[[Page 64381]]

greatest extent practicable until such time as the sage-grouse are more
mobile. In practice, this period of time within the Bi-State area is
from approximately mid-May to late June. Further, we suggest that
harvesting occur from the inside of the field working outward to ensure
that sage-grouse have the ability to move away from machinery and into
adjacent cover.
Maintenance and Construction of Corrals, Ranch Buildings, Fences, and
Roads
Maintenance and construction of infrastructure associated with
routine livestock practices can potentially negatively affect the Bi-
State DPS and may potentially lead to take of the DPS by direct
mortality due to collision or through facilitating predation and the
spread of nonnative, invasive species. However, these activities may
also prove beneficial by improving operations and ultimately range
condition. Therefore, the Service is including activities associated
with the maintenance and construction of small infrastructure features
in this proposed special rule.
The Service encourages limiting the installation of new
infrastructure in habitat used by the Bi-State DPS. Further, in
instances when placement of these features outside of the DPS's
occupied habitat cannot occur because it will not achieve ranch
objectives, we recommend the impact posed by these features be
minimized to the greatest extent possible. This may include (but it not
limited to): Timing construction during periods of sage-grouse absence;
using alternative fencing methods (e.g., let-down or electric fencing);
marking fences with visual markers; micro-sighting features to minimize
impact; and conducting routine monitoring and treatment of noxious
weeds.
Control of Noxious Weeds
Controlling noxious weeds through a variety of methods (i.e.,
chemical, mechanical, or fire) can be an important action affecting
conservation of the Bi-State DPS because these nonnative species can
alter sagebrush habitats and render them unsuitable to sage-grouse.
However, these actions may potentially cause take of the DPS by
disturbance, displacement, or direct mortality. Regardless, the Service
considers the benefit gained through active weed suppression to
outweigh potential negative consequences to the Bi-State DPS, and is
therefore including these activities in this proposed special rule.
The Service encourages these activities to be minimized to the
greatest extent practicable, but, in instances when the action is
considered necessary, and depending on the method used, appropriate
minimization measures may be employed. This may include altering timing
of application to minimize disturbance or probability of prescribed
fire escape. Further, effort should be taken to minimize collateral
damage to shrubs and desirable herbaceous species when applying
herbicide(s).
Mineral Supplements and Water Developments
Mineral supplements and water developments can negatively affect
the Bi-State DPS's habitat through facilitating the spread of
nonnative, invasive species; facilitating disease transmission; or
potentially causing direct mortality of sage-grouse through drowning.
However, these developments may also have a beneficial effect on the
DPS by dispersing livestock use and ultimately improving range
condition. Therefore, the Service is including this activity in this
proposed special rule.
The Service encourages that mineral supplements and water
developments be minimized to the greatest extent practicable to achieve
ranch objectives, but, in instances when the action is considered
necessary, appropriate minimization and maintenance measures may be
employed. These should include maintaining native meadows surrounding
springs, placing wildlife escape ramps in watering facilities to
prevent drowning, and periodically treating noxious weeds to prevent
establishment. Furthermore, it may be prudent to periodically change
the location of these facilities in conjunction with weed treatments to
minimize the extent to which a single location is overly used and
ultimately degraded.
Additional Routine Livestock Ranching Activities
Additional routine ranching activities may include woodland
treatment to improve degraded shrub habitats or the creation of fire
breaks to prevent the loss of home or property. As discussed above,
these activities can negatively affect the Bi-State DPS and may cause
take of the DPS. However, the Service considers these actions to
produce a net gain to the conservation of the DPS, when conducted in an
appropriate manner, and we are therefore including these activities in
this proposed special rule.
This provision of the proposed 4(d) special rule for agricultural
activities would promote conservation of the Bi-State DPS by
encouraging landowners and ranchers to continue managing the remaining
landscape in ways that meet the needs of their operation while
simultaneously providing suitable habitat for the DPS.
Provisions of the Proposed Special Rule
Section 4(d) of the Act states that ``the Secretary shall issue
such regulations as [s]he deems necessary and advisable to provide for
the conservation'' of species listed as a threatened species.
Conservation is defined in the Act as, ``to use and the use of all
methods and procedures which are necessary to bring any endangered
species or threatened species to the point at which the measures
provided pursuant to [the] Act are no longer necessary.'' Additionally,
section 4(d) of the Act states that the Secretary, ``may by regulation
prohibit with respect to any threatened species any act prohibited
under section 9(a)(1).''
The courts have recognized the extent of the Secretary of the
Interior's discretion under this standard to develop rules that are
appropriate for the conservation of a species. For example, the
Secretary may find that it is necessary and advisable not to include a
taking prohibition, or to include a limited taking prohibition. See
Alsea Valley Alliance v. Lautenbacher, 2007 U.S. Dist. Lexis 60203 (D.
Or. 2007); Washington Environmental Council v. National Marine
Fisheries Service, and 2002 U.S. Dist. Lexis 5432 (W.D. Wash. 2002). In
addition, as affirmed in State of Louisiana v. Verity, 853 F.2d 322
(5th Cir. 1988), the rule need not address all the threats to the
species. As noted by Congress when the Act was initially enacted,
``once an animal is on the threatened list, the Secretary has an almost
infinite number of options available to him with regard to the
permitted activities for those species. [S]he may, for example, permit
taking, but not importation of such species,'' or the Secretary may
choose to forbid both taking and importation but allow the
transportation of such species, as long as the measures will ``serve to
conserve, protect, or restore the species concerned in accordance with
the purposes of the Act'' (H.R. Rep. No. 412, 93rd Cong., 1st Sess.
1973).

[[Page 64382]]

Section 9 prohibitions make it illegal for any person subject to
the jurisdiction of the United States to take (including harass, harm,
pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect; or attempt
any of these), import or export, ship in interstate commerce in the
course of commercial activity, or sell or offer for sale in interstate
or foreign commerce any wildlife species listed as an endangered
species, without written authorization. It also is illegal under
section 9(a)(1) of the Act to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport,
or ship any such wildlife that is taken illegally. Prohibited actions
consistent with section 9 of the Act are outlined for threatened
species at 50 CFR 17.31(a) and (b). We are proposing a 4(d) special
rule for the Bi-State DPS that would apply all of the prohibitions set
forth at 50 CFR 17.31(a) and (b) to the Bi-State DPS with the
exceptions detailed above and summarized below.
First, we propose that none of the provisions at 50 CFR 17.31 would
apply to actions associated with a conservation program developed by or
in coordination with the State agency or agencies responsible for the
management and conservation of fish and wildlife within the affected
State(s), or their agent(s), and that the Service determines provides a
net conservation benefit for the Bi-State DPS, as described earlier in
this Proposed Special Rule section. The proposed 4(d) special rule
identifies a set of criteria the Service proposes to use to evaluate
such programs. Among additional considerations, the approval criteria
would require that the program provide the Bi-State DPS populations and
habitat targets necessary to ensure a net conservation benefit for the
DPS across the program area, in addition to mechanisms for achieving
those targets. In this way, actions in the program would ultimately
contribute to the conservation of the DPS. If this provision of the
proposed special rule is adopted, the Service expects that rangewide
conservation actions would be implemented with a high level of
certainty that the program would lead to the long-term conservation of
the Bi-State DPS.
Second, we also propose that none of the provisions in 50 CFR 17.31
would apply to routine livestock ranching activities conducted in a
sustainable manner, as described earlier in this Proposed Special Rule
section. According to the proposed listing rule, the primary factors
supporting the proposed threatened status for the Bi-State DPS are the
impacts of cumulative habitat loss and fragmentation. Allowing the
continuation of existing ranching and agricultural operations
consistent with these criteria would encourage landowners to continue
managing the remaining landscape in ways that meet the needs of their
operations while simultaneously providing suitable habitat for the Bi-
State DPS.
Based on the rationale above, the provisions included in this
proposed 4(d) special rule are necessary and advisable to provide for
the conservation of the Bi-State DPS. Nothing in this proposed 4(d)
special rule changes in any way the recovery planning provisions of
section 4(f) of the Act, consultation requirements under section 7 of
the Act, or the ability of the Service to enter into partnerships for
the management and protection of the Bi-State DPS.

Required Determinations

Clarity of the Rule

We are required by Executive Orders 12866 and 12988 and by the
Presidential Memorandum of June 1, 1998, to write all rules in plain
language. This means that each rule we publish must:
(1) Be logically organized;
(2) Use the active voice to address readers directly;
(3) Use clear language rather than jargon;
(4) Be divided into short sections and sentences; and
(5) Use lists and tables wherever possible.
If you feel that we have not met these requirements, send us
comments by one of the methods listed in the ADDRESSES section. To
better help us revise the rule, your comments should be as specific as
possible. For example, you should tell us the numbers of the sections
or paragraphs that are unclearly written, which sections or sentences
are too long, the sections where you feel lists or tables would be
useful, etc.

National Environmental Policy Act (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.)

We have determined that environmental assessments and environmental
impact statements, as defined under the authority of the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not be
prepared in connection with listing a species as an endangered or
threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. We published a
notice outlining our reasons for this determination in the Federal
Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).

References Cited

A complete list of references cited in this rulemaking is available
on the Internet at http://www.regulations.gov under Docket No. FWS-R8-
ES-2013-0072 and upon request from the Nevada Fish and Wildlife Office
(see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT).

Authors

The primary authors of this proposed rule are the staff members of
the Service's Nevada Fish and Wildlife Office and Region 8 Regional
Office.

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17

Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, Transportation.

Proposed Regulation Promulgation

Accordingly, we propose to amend part 17, subchapter B of chapter
I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth below:

PART 17--[AMENDED]

0
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:

Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 1531-1544; 4201-4245, unless
otherwise noted.

0
2. Amend Sec. 17.11(h) by adding an entry for ``Sage-grouse, greater
(Bi-State DPS)'' to the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife in
alphabetical order under BIRDS to read as follows:

Sec. 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife.

* * * * *
(h) * * *

[[Page 64383]]

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species Vertebrate
-------------------------------------------------------- population where Critical Special
Historic range endangered or Status When listed habitat rules
Common name Scientific name threatened
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

* * * * * * *
Birds

* * * * * * *
Sage-grouse, greater (Bi-State Centrocercus U.S.A. (CA, NV).... Entire............. T ........... NA 17.41(d)
DPS). urophasianus.

* * * * * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

0
3. Amend Sec. 17.41 by adding paragraph (d) to read as follows:

Sec. 17.41 Special rules--birds.

(d) Bi-State DPS of Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus
urophasianus).
(1) Prohibitions. Except as noted in paragraphs (d)(2)(i) and
(d)(2)(ii) of this section, all prohibitions and provisions of
Sec. Sec. 17.31 and 17.32 apply to the Bi-State distinct population
segment (DPS) of greater sage-grouse.
(2) Exemptions from prohibitions. Incidental take of the Bi-State
DPS of greater sage-grouse will not be considered a violation of
section 9 of the Act if the take results from any of the following:
(i) Implementation of a comprehensive conservation program for the
Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse that:
(A) Was developed by or in coordination with State agency or
agencies, or their agent(s), responsible for the management and
conservation of fish and wildlife within the affected State(s).
(B) Is intended to conserve the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse
by:
(1) Addressing threats affecting the DPS within the program area;
(2) Implementing objective, measurable biological goals and
objectives for the populations and habitat necessary to ensure a net
conservation benefit, and providing the mechanisms by which those goals
and objectives would be achieved;
(3) Ensuring the establishment of funding mechanisms to effectively
implement all elements of the conservation program;
(4) Employing an adaptive management strategy to ensure future
program adaptation as necessary and appropriate; and
(5) Including appropriate monitoring of effectiveness and
compliance.
(C) Is reviewed by the Service as meeting the objectives for which
it was originally established under paragraph (d)(2)(i)(B) of this
section.
(ii) Conservation practices on privately owned lands that:
(A) Are carried out in accordance with a conservation plan that
meets the requirements of paragraph (d)(2)(i) of this section; and
(B) Involve the following types of conservation activities:
(1) Installing infrastructure features that allow land managers to
meet management objectives that benefit the Bi-State DPS of greater
sage-grouse.
(2) Treating woodland sites that have encroached upon, infilled,
and replaced sagebrush habitat, and restoring the location to a
condition dominated by a sagebrush vegetation community.
(3) Conducting fire management activities (i.e., preventing,
suppressing, and restoring) to prevent or minimize the spread of
wildfires in rangelands.
(4) Conducting activities that constrain development and water
rights related to procuring conservation easements.
(5) Conducting land management activities that minimize the impact
of feral horses on the local landscape in the Bi-State area.
(6) Conducting restoration and maintenance activities (e.g.,
mechanical or chemical treatments) in meadow, riparian, and other mesic
habitats that are used by the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse to
facilitate recruitment of juvenile greater sage-grouse, as well as
restoration activities in upland sites that are degraded by grazing or
recreational use.
(7) Performing population maintenance activities, and conducting
scientific research and monitoring. These activities may include
disturbing, displacing, or capturing and relocating greater sage-grouse
in order to repopulate an extirpated location.
(8) Conducting routine livestock ranching and agricultural
activities (i.e., sustainable livestock grazing) that adapt to changing
environmental and economic conditions and provide a long-term
conservation benefit to the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse by
maintaining (as much as possible) those aspects of the ranching
landscape that can aid in the recovery of the Bi-State DPS of greater
sage-grouse.
(9) Planting, harvesting, and rotating forage crops in irrigated
pastures associated with livestock operations, specifically in
locations where these irrigated pastures serve as brood-rearing habitat
for greater sage-grouse in the absence of natural meadows.
(10) Maintaining and constructing infrastructure (i.e., corrals,
ranch buildings, fences, and roads) associated with routine livestock
practices when these actions provide a long-term conservation benefit
to the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse by improving operations and
ultimately range conditions, thereby aiding in the recovery of the Bi-
State DPS of greater sage-grouse.
(11) Controlling noxious weeds (i.e., nonnative plant species)
through a variety of methods (i.e., chemical, mechanical, or fire) to
prevent or minimize alteration of sagebrush habitats, which can render
affected areas unsuitable for the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse.
(12) Installing water developments and using mineral supplements
(only when necessary) by employing appropriate minimization and
maintenance measures. Exemption applies only when installing these
water development features or using mineral supplements results in
long-term maintenance of native meadows surrounding springs, avoidance
of sage-grouse drowning by placing wildlife escape ramps in watering
facilities, periodic treatment of noxious weeds to prevent
establishment, or relocation of these facilities to minimize the extent
to which a single location becomes overly used and degraded.

[[Page 64384]]

(13) Conducting routine ranching activities not described in this
paragraph (d)(2)(ii)(B) that include woodland treatments to improve
degraded shrub habitats or create fire breaks, which in turn prevent
the loss of home or property, and produce a net gain to the
conservation of the Bi-State DPS of greater sage-grouse.
* * * * *

Dated: September 17, 2013.
Daniel M. Ashe,
Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
[FR Doc. 2013-24307 Filed 10-25-13; 8:45 am]
BILLING CODE 4310-55-P